JC-NRLF 

iiiiiii  1 1  1 1  1  mil  II 

1 1 II  III  II  III  1  {||| 

Nli;!  lilii  Mill 

^B    5EM    5fiM 

UNDERGROUND  WATERS 


FOR 


COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES 


BY 

FRANK  L.  RECTOR,  B.S.,  M.D. 

BACTERIOLOGIST,  GREAT  BEAR  SPRING   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK;   MEMBER 
AMERICAN  PUBLIC  HEALTH  ASSOCIATION,  AMERICAN  MICROSCOPI- 
CAL SOCIETY,  AMERICAN  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY,  AMERICAN 
ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE, 
NEW  ENGLAND  WATER-WORKS  ASSOCIATION 


FIRST    EDITION 
FIRST  THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN   WILEY   &   SONS,  Inc 

London:    CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 
1913 


Copyright,  191 3,  by 
FRANK  L.  RECTOR 


Publishers  Printing  Company 
ao7-2i7  West  Twenty -fifth  Street,  New  York 


INTRODUCTION 

While  much  has  been  written  upon  the  subject  of 
waters,  there  has  been  no  attempt  to  collect  in  one 
volume  the  material  presented  herein.  The  available 
published  material  has  followed  two  rather  sharply 
defined  lines,  one  devoted  to  the  consideration  of 
waters  from  various  sources  for  industrial  purposes; 
the  other  devoted  to  discussion  of  waters  for  municipal 
and  public  uses. 

The  subject  of  underground  waters  for  commercial 
purposes  has  received  meagre  attention  at  the  hands 
of  various  writers,  and  it  is  the  author's  intention  in 
the  following  pages  to  discuss  in  more  or  less  detail  this 
phase  of  the  question.  The  rapidly  growing  popula- 
tion of  our  country,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
large  cities,  makes  the  question  of  a  sufficient  and  safe 
water  supply  one  of  prime  importance.  The  urban 
population  will  be  compelled  more  and  more  in  the 
future  to  look  to  sources  other  than  the  public  supply 
for  water  for  drinking  and  domestic  use. 

The  bottled,  or  mineral,  water  trade  of  the  United 

States   has   already  reached  large  proportions,  and 

is  yet  in  its  infancy.     Only  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  the 

ill 


flfiQ^OCk 


IV  INTRODUCTION 

man  who  had  the  temerity  to  suggest  that  bottled 
waters  would  find  an  extended  market  among  any 
bat  the  wealthy  was  looked  upon  as  a  visionary;  yet 
it  is  only  necessary  to  point  to  the  fact  that  the 
value  of  mineral  waters  sold  in  the  United  States 
in  191 1  was  $6,837,888,  in  order  to  see  that  there  are 
large  possibiHties  in  this  line  of  commercial  activity. 
There  were  seven  hundred  and  thirty-two  springs 
reporting  sales  in  191 1  with  a  combined  output  of 
63,923,119  gallons.  This  does  not  take  into  consider- 
ation the  quantities  of  water  supplied  to  guests  at  the 
various  spring  resorts,  nor  that  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  so-called  "soft  drinks,"  such  as  pop, 
ginger  ale,  etc.  Likewise,  there  were  many  springs 
which  made  no  report,  and  their  output  could  not  be 
included  in  the  foregoing  estimate. 

Many  sources  of  information  have  been  drawn  upon 
in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  and  while  it  is  im- 
practicable to  acknowledge  each  citation,  the  ap- 
pended bibliography  covers  practically  all  the  author- 
ities consulted,  and  to  these  the  author  wishes  to 
express  his  obligations  and  thanks. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction        . iii 

Source  of  Water i 

Ground  Water 5 

Distribution  and  Properties  of  Water     •       ,  11 

Springs 16 

Wells 24 

Watershed 32 

Mineral  Water 40 

Chemical  Examination 49 

Bacteriological  Examination        ....  63 

Microscopical  Examination 78 

Appendix.    Useful  Rules  and  Tables  .       .  83 

Bibliography 93 

Index •       •  95 


CHAPTER  I 
SOURCE  OF  WATER 

The  source  of  all  underground  water  which  rises 
in  the  form  of  springs  or  is  obtained  by  sinking  wells 
is  the  rain  which  falls  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
A  few  exceptions  to  this  statement  are  the  hot  springs 
found  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  due  to 
volcanic  action,  and  a  few  inclusions  of  ocean  water 
in  sedimentary  rocks.  But  these  are  small  compared 
to  the  large  number  and  wide  distribution  of  non- 
thermal springs. 

Springs  whose  source  is  the  rainfall  are  found 
throughout  the  world,  and  vary  in  size  from  the 
tiniest  rill  to  a  stream  large  enough  to  carry  steam- 
boats. There  are  springs  in  Florida  with  a  flow  of 
over  360,000  gallons  per  minute,  steamboats  ascend- 
ing the  stream  caused  by  their  overflow  to  the  very 
source.  As  certain  geologic  conditions  are  necessary 
to  the  formation  of  springs,  they  are  oftentimes 
grouped  in  more  or  less  restricted  localities. 

When  rain  descends  upon  the  earth  part  of  the 
water  finds  its  way  immediately  into  streams  and 
lakes,  constituting  the  run-off;  part  is  absorbed  by 


2  UiSTDlCRGJlOUND  WATERS 

growing  plants,  part  enters  into  chemical  reactions  in 
the  soil,  and  a  certain  amount  is  immediately  returned 
to  the  air  by  evaporation.  The  remainder  passes 
downward  to  various  depths,  to  appear  later  in  the 
form  of  springs,  or  in  swamps  and  lakes.  This  por- 
tion of  the  rainfall  is  known  as  ground  water.  The 
run-off  sooner  or  later  reaches  the  larger  bodies  of 
water,  where  it  evaporates  and  is  again  deposited  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth  as  rain  or  snow. 

The  portion  of  the  rainfall  constituting  the  ground 
water  pursues  a  different  course.  It  passes  down- 
ward, due  to  the  force  of  gravity,  until,  coming  in 
contact  with  some  obstruction,  its  course  is  directed 
more  or  less  horizontally.  Sooner  or  later  it  finds  an 
outlet  at  the  surface.  In  its  passage  through  the 
ground  this  water  may  travel  long  distances,  and  may 
come  in  contact  with  soluble  materials  which  will  be 
carried  along  with  it,  completely  altering  its  composi- 
tion when  it  emerges;  or  it  may  reach  the  surface  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  in  which  it  was  deposited, 
having  undergone  Httle  change  in  its  passage.  This 
is  specially  true  in  limestone  regions  where  filtering 
agents  are  scarce  and  where  the  rain  quickly  finds  its 
way  into  seams,  joints,  and  fissures,  following  along 
these  until  it'  reaches  the  surface.  Thus  it  can  be 
seen  readily  why  waters  coming  from  different  sec- 
tions of  the  country  have  different  composition;  or, 


SOURCE   OF   WATER  3 

waters  from  closely  adjacent  areas  may  have  a 
wholly  different  composition,  as  the  composition  of 
underground  strata  have  been  found  to  be  radically 
different  in  contiguous  localities. 

Rain,  or  meteoric,  water  is  the  purest  form  of  natu- 
ral water  obtainable.  It  is  closely  related  to  distilled 
water;  in  fact,  it  is  water  that  has  been  distilled  by 
nature  and  condensed  in  the  form  of  clouds.  During 
a  given  rainfall  the  first  water  that  descends  washes 
the  dust  particles  from  the  air,  and  is  thus  more  or  less 
contaminated.  The  remaining  water  is  practically 
free  from  contamination,  except  for  the  small  amount 
of  gases  it  may  absorb  in  its  descent  from  the  clouds. 
These  conditions  are  modified  by  the  surroundings, 
such  as  factories  emitting  smoke  and  gases  and  other 
sources  of  contamination. 

The  air  in  the  vicinity  of  chemical  factories  is 
saturated  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  chlorine, 
nitrous  oxid,  various  acids,  etc.,  depending  upon  the 
particular  form  of  manufacture  carried  on  at  that 
place.  Smelter  fumes  contain  large  quantities  of 
arsenic  which  may  be  carried  miles  by  air  currents, 
dwarfing  the  growth  of  all  vegetable  Ufe  in  its  path. 

Vapors  arising  from  decomposing  vegetable  matter 
in  swamps  and  bogs  contain  gases  which  will  be  taken 
up  by  the  rain  in  its  descent  and  carried  with  it  into 
the  earth. 


4  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

Snow  acts  in  much  the  same  way  as  does  rain  in  its 
properties  of  purifying  the  atmosphere  and  absorbing 
gases.  The  bacterial  content  of  snow  is  usually  lower 
than  that  of  rain,  as  the  air  in  winter  contains  fewer 
bacteria  than  in  summer. 

It  can  thus  be  seen  readily  that  the  more  thickly 
populated  a  country  is  the  less  Hkely  the  inhabitants 
are  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  water  supply  in  their 
immediate  vicinity. 


CHAPTER  II 

GROUND  WATER 

As  previously  noted,  ground  water  is  that  portion 
of  the  rainfall  which  soaks  into  the  ground  to  appear 
later  as  springs  or  wells.  Rain  water  tends  to  pass 
downward,  due  to  the  force  of  gravity,  but  its  passage 
is  resisted  by  the  earth  particles  between  which  it  must 
pass.  In  sands  and  gravels  where  these  spaces  are 
numerous  and  relatively  large,  the  water  passes  quite 
readily;  in  sandstones  where  the  spaces  are  small, 
capillary  attraction  exerts  a  strong  influence  in  re- 
tarding the  movement  of  the  water.  In  limestone 
and  granite  there  is  little  or  no  movement  in  the  rock 
mass  itself  due  to  the  extreme  fineness  of  these  spaces, 
the  resulting  friction,  and  the  effect  of  capillary  at- 
traction; but  there  is  rapid  and  free  movement  of  the 
water  in  fissures,  joints,  seams,  and  faults  in  this  type 
of  rock. 

As  soon  as  water  comes  in  contact  with  the  surface 
of  the  earth  it  is  changed.  Where  before  it  had  been 
practically  pure,  it  is  now  contaminated  by  soil  bac- 
teria, and  it  also  takes  up  various  soluble  elements 
present  in  the   soil.    If    the  water  emerges  in  the 

5 


6  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

same  vicinity  in  which  it  was  deposited,  it  will  have  the 
characteristics  of  the  soil  in  that  vicinity;  but  if  it 
travels  some  distance  under  the  surface  before  it  again 
finds  an  outlet,  it  may  take  on  varying  characteristics, 
depending  upon  the  kind  of  geologic  strata  it  has 
traversed. 

In  sandy  and  gravelly  subsoil  there  are  no  distinct 
channels  through  which  the  water  passes,  but  it  finds 
its  way  between  the  grains  of  sand  as  best  it  may. 
The  spaces  between  sand  grains,  whether  the  grains 
are  loose  or  combined  in  sandstone,  are  called  pores, 
and  the  relative  size  and  abundance  of  these  openings 
constitute  the  porosity  of  a  given  medium.  Porosity 
is  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  whole  mass.  Thus, 
if  loo  cubic  feet  of  rock  will  absorb  20  cubic  feet  of 
water,  the  porosity  of  that  rock  is  20  per  cent. 
Rocks  formed  under  water  by  sedimentation  are  the 
most  porous. 

The  porosity  of  a  rock  or  other  medium  is  its  power 
to  absorb  water.  The  ability  to  transmit,  that  is,  to 
allow  of  the  passage  of  water  through  a  rock,  is  known 
as  the  permeability.  This  depends  upon  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  porosity,  large  pores  allowing 
water  to  pass  through  more  rapidly  than  small  pores, 
due  to  the  decreased  resistance.  The  presence  of 
joints,  fractures,  seams,  etc.,  in  a  rock  also  increases 
its  permeability.     Rocks  may  have  a  high  porosity, 


GROUND   WATER  7 

but  slight  permeability,  due  to  the  extreme  fineness 
of  the  pores. 

PermeabiUty  depends  not  alone  upon  the  presence 
of  pores  in  the  rock,  but  also  upon  the  communication 
of  one  pore  with  another.  If  the  communicating 
channels  are  few  and  small  the  permeability  will  be 
very  greatly  reduced,  and  although  the  porosity  of  the 
rock  may  be  high,  its  power  to  transmit  water  will  be 
very  slight.  Under  sucH  conditions  the  presence  of 
fissures  and  joints  in  the  rock  will  greatly  increase  its 
transmitting  power.  The  following  table  from 
Gregory  (ii)  gives  the  limits  of  porosity  of  different 
water-bearing  materials : 

Rock  Per  cent  of  Water  absorbed 

Pore  Space  per  cu.  ft.  (qts.) 

Sandstone 4.81  2-6 

28.28 
Limestone .14  /4~'^}i 

13-36  1-5 

Marble 184 

3.578 

Granite .  969  i  / 100-^ 

Slate .099 

.304 

Chalk 4-8 

Sand 8-10 

Clay 10-12 


8  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

The  figures  given  show  the  ordinary  limits  of  the 
porosity  of  the  rocks. 

From  the  above  table  it  is  seen  that  clay  has  a  high 
porosity,  but  its  permeability  is  slight  owing  to  the 
extremely  small  size  of  the  pores,  although  their  ag- 
gregate capacity  is  rather  large. 

The  movement  of  water  through  the  earth  is  quite 
slow,  being  measured  in  feet  per  year  rather  than 
miles  per  hour  or  day,  as  is  the  case  with  surface 
streams.  Rate  of  movement  is  also  dependent  upon 
the  pressure  behind,  and  the  inclination  or  grade  along 
which  it  flows.  Water  tends  to  pass  vertically  down- 
ward, but  obstructions  of  rock  masses,  slate,  clay,  or 
other  materials,  which  are  impenetrable  may  cause  the 
formation  of  considerable  head.  According  to  Slichter 
(28),  who  bases  his  calculations  upon  experimental 
work,  with  a  temperature  of  50°  F.,  a  porosity  of 
32  per  cent,  and  a  pressure  gradient  of  ten  feet  to 
the  mile,  water  has  been  estimated  to  travel  in  a 
year  in  fine  sand  52.8  feet;  in  medium  sand,  216  feet; 
in  coarse  sand,  845  feet,  and  in  fine  gravel,  5,386  feet. 
This  is  through  a  medium  of  uniform  composition. 

An  increase  in  temperature  causes  an  increase  in  the 
rapidity  of  movement.  At  a  temperature  of  70°  F. 
the  rate  of  movement  is  double  that  at  32°  F.,  because 
at  the  higher  temperature  the  water  is  less 
viscous. 


GROUND   WATER  9 

The  temperature  of  ground  water  is  the  same  as  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  region  under  which  it  lies. 
The  temperature  of  the  outer  crust  of  the  earth  to  a 
thickness  of  about  50  feet  is  influenced  by  the  seasonal 
variations  in  the  cUmate.  At  a  depth  of  50  feet  the 
temperature  is  practically  constant  and  is  the  same 
as  the  mean  temperature  of  that  particular  region. 
Below  a  depth  of  50  feet  the  temperature  increases 
one  degree  for  each  60  feet  in  depth,  on  an  average. 
Therefore  it  can  be  seen  that,  generally  speaking, 
waters  can  be  no  colder  than  the  mean  temperature 
of  their  particular  region.  This  is  contrary  to  the 
general  belief  that  water  whose  temperature  is  quite 
low  in  hot  summer  weather,  or  whose  temperature  does 
not  vary  throughout  the  year,  must  come  from  great 
depths.  The  farther  below  the  outer  zone  of  50  feet 
from  which  waters  rise,  the  higher  will  be  their 
temperature. 

Waters  lying  less  than  50  feet  below  the  surface  are 
colder  in  winter  and  warmer  in  summer,  as  they  are 
acted  upon  by  external  climatic  conditions.  On  the 
other  hand,  waters  coming  from  great  depths  have  a 
temperature  above  the  average  for  the  region  in  which 
they  occur,  corresponding  to  the  depth  from  which 
they  rise.  Waters  reaching  the  surface  as  hot  springs 
must  come  from  deep  sources,  as  many  of  them  have  a 
temperature  of  at  least  180°  F.  at  their  point  of  emer- 


lO  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

gence,  and  must  of  necessity  have  lost  some  heat  in 
rising  to  the  surface. 

Fuller  (8)  says:  ''Springs  with  a  temperature  of 
over  150°  F.  are  rare,  if  they  occur  at  all  outside  of 
igneous  regions.  As  this  temperature  represents  only 
a  depth  of  5,000  feet  on  the  basis  of  an  increment  of 
1°  to  each  50  feet  of  depth,  it  is  readily  seen  that  we 
have  ordinarily  no  truly  deep-seated  springs  whatever. 
Springs  at  the  boiling  point  would  represent  a  depth 
of  only  about  8,000  feet." 

All  water  finally  reaches  a  certain  level  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  where  it  ceases  to  pass  downward, 
and  is  directed  in  a  horizontal  plane,  forming  a  more 
or  less  continuous  bed  of  water.  This  is  known  as  the 
ground- water  table,  and  will  be  discussed  more  fully 
under  the  subject  of  springs.  (Chapter  IV.)  This 
ground-water  table  underlies  practically  all  the  earth's 
surface,  is  tapped  when  wells  are  sunk,  and  also  forms 
springs,  lakes,  and  marshes  when  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  eroded,  as  in  a  valley  or  ravine,  and  the  water- 
bearing stratum  is  cut  across. 


CHAPTER  III 
DISTRIBUTION  AND   PROPERTIES  OF   WATER 

Water  is  the  most  widely  distributed  substance  of 
which  we  have  knowledge.  The  hardest  crystals  and 
the  driest  rocks  contain  appreciable  quantities  of 
water.  In  fact,  crystals  could  not  form  were  it  not 
for  the  action  of  water.  The  human  body  is  composed 
largely  of  water,  it  being  present  in  the  various  tissues 
in  amounts  varying  from  two  per  cent  to  ninety-nine 
per  cent.  A  body  weighing  165  pounds  will  be  com- 
posed of  115  pounds  of  water.  Plant  life,  like  animal 
life,  has  a  large  amount  of  water  in  its  composition. 

Geographers  tell  us  that  three-fourths  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  covered  with  water,  and  the  interior  of 
the  earth  contains  large  quantities,  as  shown  by  the 
many  thermal  springs  and  geysers  that  exist  in  widely 
separated  parts  of  the  universe. 

The  amount  of  free  water  in  the  earth's  crust 

has  been   estimated  by  Delesse    (Fuller,  8)    to  be 

"equivalent  to  one  nine-hundred- twenty-first  part  of 

the  earth's  volume,  or  to  a  sheet  of  water  over  7,500 

feet    thick   surrounding    the   earth."     Slichter    (28) 

calculates   the  amount  as  "being  equivalent  to  a 

II 


12  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

uniform  sheet  3,000  to  3,500  feet  in  thickness,"  Van 
Hise  (32)  furnishes  an  estimate  that  the  water  on  con- 
tinental areas  would  form  a  layer  226  feet  deep,  but 
makes  no  calculation  regarding  oceanic  areas.  Cham- 
berlin  and  Salisbury  (Fuller,  8)  estimate  that  the 
amount  of  free  water  in  the  earth's  crust  would  form 
a  layer  1,600  feet  in  depth;  and  Fuller  (8)  has  de- 
termined, after  a  careful  and  close  study  of  all  factors, 
that  this  figure  should  be  reduced  to  96  feet. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  no  free  water  exists 
below  a  depth  of  about  20,000  feet  beneath  the  land  in 
crystalline  rocks.  It  will  be  possible  for  free  water  to 
be  found  at  a  greater  depth  at  points  below  the  ocean. 
In  sedimentary  rocks  little  free  water  exists  below 
2,600  feet  in  depth. 

Water  is  an  odorless,  tasteless,  colorless  liquid.  A 
layer  of  water  of  some  thickness  may  show  a  bluish 
tinge.  It  is  neutral  in  reaction.  It  is  the  most 
universal  solvent  known,  and  for  this  reason  is  very 
hard  to  obtain  in  the  pure  state. 

Absolutely  pure  water  is  never  found  in  nature,  and 
is  difficult  to  obtain  even  in  the  laboratory.  It  is 
necessary  to  distil  water  twice,  and  to  conduct  the 
operation  with  special  care,  in  order  to  get  absolutely 
pure  water. 

The  term  pure  water  may  have  various  meanings, 
depending  upon  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND   PROPERTIES    OF   WATER        1 3 


Water  may  be  chemically  pure  when  it  contains  no 
substances  which  would  interfere  with  chemical 
reactions.  It  is  bacteriologically  pure  when  it  con- 
tains no  bacteria  capable  of  setting  up  diseased 
conditions  when  taken  into  the  system,  regardless  of 
its  chemical  composition.  It  is  pure  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view  when  it  contains  no  evidences  of  pollu- 
tion from  the  wastes  of  man  or  animals;  and  it  may  be 
considered  pure  by  the  engineer  when  it  contains  no 
Hme  or  salt  to  form  boiler  scale,  or  organic  matter  in 
sufficient  amount  to  cause  foaming.  So  we  see  that 
when  a  pure  water  is  spoken  of,  its  use,  whether  for 
chemical,  bacteriological,  sanitary,  or  industrial  pur- 
poses, must  be  borne  in  mind. 

Rain  water,  if  obtained  before  reaching  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  is  the  purest  form  of  natural  water,  as  is  also 
snow.  As  soon  as  it  has  come  in  contact  with  the  soil, 
however,  it  becomes  contaminated,  owing  to  its  solvent 
action.  Ice  is  also  a  very  pure  form  of  natural  water, 
as  most  of  the  substances  in  solution  are  forced  out 
into  the  surrounding  water  during  the  process  of 
freezing.  Water  that  is  contaminated  bacteriologi- 
cally is  purified  to  a  great  extent  by  the  process  of 
freezing,  and  ice  that  has  been  frozen  for  a  few  months 
is  perfectly  safe  to  use,  even  though  its  source  was 
polluted. 

A  good  descriptive  term  for  a  mineral  water  is 


14  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

''potability.'^  A  potable  water  is  one  free  from 
pollution,  pleasing  to  the  taste,  and  perfectly  safe  for 
drinking  and  domestic  use.  It  may  and  should  con- 
tain some  chemical  substances  which  give  it  a  pleasing 
taste,  and  may  contain  bacteria,  provided  no  organ- 
isms indicative  of  pollution  are  present.  The  combina- 
tion of  chemicals  in  a  given  water  gives  that  water  its 
individual  taste.  Distilled  water,  lacking  these  chem- 
ical salts,  has  a  very  flat  and  insipid  taste,  and  in  a  soft 
water  the  same  insipidity  will  be  noted  in  a  lesser 
degree,  owing  to  the  small  amount  of  chemical  salts  in 
solution. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  water  may  hold  such  a  large 
proportion  of  chemicals  in  solution  as  to  be  very  dis- 
agreeable in  taste.  Large  quantities  of  sodium 
chloride  (common  salt),  magnesium  sulphate  (Epsom 
salts),  various  forms  of  iron,  sulphur,  and  other 
chemical  substances  impart  to  water  a  characteristic 
and  oftentimes  disagreeable  taste. 

The  taste  of  water,  aside  from  extreme  conditions, 
is  largely  a  matter  of  personal  preference.  After 
drinking  for  some  time  water  with  a  certain  chemical 
content  we  become  accustomed  to  it,  and  when  a 
change  is  made  to  a  water  of  different  chemical 
content  the  altered  taste  is  readily  noticeable. 

Certain  properties  of  pure  water  are  taken  as  stand- 
ards  in    chemical   and   physical    calculations.    The 


DISTRIBUTION  AND  PROPERTIES   OF  WATER        1 5 

standard  of  specific  gravity  is  based  upon  water,  its 
specific  gravity  being  i  at  15°  C.  It  is  the  standard 
of  weight  in  the  metric  system,  a  cubic  centimetre  of 
water  at  4°  C.  weighing  one  gram.  Standards  of  heat 
are  based  upon  water;  the  amount  of  heat  required  to 
raise  one  gram  of  water  1°  C.  is  taken  as  the  basis  and 
is  known  as  the  calorie.  Specific  heat  of  other  sub- 
stances is  given  in  comparison  with  this  standard. 

Chemically  water  is  composed  of  but  two  elements, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  proportion  of  two  parts  of 
the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.  Its  formula  is,  there- 
fore, H2O.  Water  occurs  in  three  physical  states — 
viz. :  solid,  liquid,  and  gas,  and  can  be  transformed 
readily  and  easily  from  one  to  the  other  under  the 
proper  environment  of  temperature  and  pressure. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SPRINGS 

A  SPRING  is  a  stream  of  water  emerging  from  the 
ground,  its  flow  being  due  to  definite,  natural  causes. 
By  this  definition  many  so-called  "springs"  are  ex- 
cluded, which  are  in  reality  only  wells  which  have 
been  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  water-bearing  strata  and 
the  water  lifted  to  the  surface  by  means  of  various 
mechanical  devices. 

The  flow  of  springs  varies  to  a  marked  extent. 
Some  may  be  of  small  volume,  scarcely  more  than  a 
rivulet,  while  others  will  be  capable  of  carrying  steam 
vessels.  Some  of  the  largest  flowing  springs  are  found 
in  Florida,  notable  among  these  being  the  Silver 
Springs,  with  an  estimated  flow  of  368,913  gallons  per 
minute,  and  Blue  Springs,  with  a  flow  of  349,166  gal- 
lons per  minute.     (Sellards,  26.) 

The  formation  of  springs  is  due  to  certain  geologic 
conditions,  chief  of  which  are  the  composition  and 
arrangement  of  the  different  layers  of  material  which 
go  to  form  the  earth's  crust.  It  would  be  impracti- 
cable to  describe  all  the  conditions  which  enter  into  the 
formation   of   the   different   types  of  springs  found 

16 


SPRINGS  17 

throughout  the  world,  as  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
geologic  conditions  in  the  vicinity  of  each  would  be 
necessary.  There  are,  however,  certain  general  prin- 
ciples which  tend  to  the  formation  of  springs,  and 
which  are  as  follows:  First,  a  porous  upper  layer 
more  or  less  saturated  with  water;  second,  an  impervi- 
ous layer  immediately  beneath  the  porous  and  lying  in 
an  inclined  plane;  third,  the  extension  of  these  two 
layers  to  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Water  falling  upon  the  porous  upper  layer  passes 
downward  by  the  force  of  gravity  until  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  impervious  layer.  It  will  then  be 
forced  along  the  upper  side  of  this  layer,  due  to  the 
pressure  of  the  water  behind,  and  finally  emerge  at  the 
surface  where  the  forces  of  weathering  have  eroded 
and  exposed  the  non-porous  layer.  The  body  of  water 
lying  above  this  impervious  layer  is  known  as  the 
ground-water  table.  Its  position  depends  upon  the 
deposition  of  the  geologic  strata  beneath  the  earth's 
surface,  also  upon  the  amount  of  rainfall,  being  higher 
in  a  wet  season  than  in  a  dry  season. 

There  may  be  an  impervious  layer  of  rock  or  shale 
above  the  ground- water  table  at  some  particular  point, 
but  such  a  condition  is  more  or  less  local,  as  the  water 
has  to  find  its  way  beneath  the  shale  or  clay  at  some 
point  in  the  vicinity. 

Occasionally  one  water  table  is  found  above  an- 


1 8  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

other.  This  is  known  as  a  ''perched"  water  table. 
Such  a  table  can  occur  only  in  hilly  regions,  and  as 
its  source  of  supply  is  restricted,  it  is  affected  readily 
by  changes  in  the  rainfall.  Its  formation  may  be 
better  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  i ,    A  well  sunk 


__  Sea  level    ^. 

Courtesy  U.  5.  Geol.  Survey. 

Fig.  I.  Perched  Water  Table.  A,  unsaturated  strata;  B. 
perched  water  table;  C,  saturated  strata;  D  relatively  im- 
pervious till. 


only  to  the  level  of  this  perched  table,  or  a  spring  sup- 
plied by  it,  will  have  a  variable  flow  as  compared  with 
a  well  or  spring  supplied  by  the  main  ground-water 


SPRINGS 


19 


table  situated  beneath  the  intervening   impervious 
stratum. 

Fuller  (10)  classifies  springs  according  to  their 
origin  as  gravity  and  artesian;  and  according  to  the 
kind  of  passages  traversed  by  the  water,  as  seepage, 
tubular,  and  fissure  springs. 

A  gravity  spring  is  one  whose  source  of  supply  is  not 
confined  between  nonporous  layers,  but  flows  through 
the  subsurface  layers  by  gravity.  It  has  no  well- 
defined  channels,  the  material  through  which  the 
water  flows  being  usually  sand  or  gravel. 

An  artesian  spring  is  one  that  emerges  under  hydro- 
static pressure,  due  to  the  fact  that  its  supply  is  con- 
fined between  impervious  layers  and  is  higher  at  its 
source  than  at  its  point  of  emergence.  If  the  waters 
of  such  a  spring  are  confined  in  a  pipe  at  the  surface 
they  will  rise  in  that  pipe  some  distance,  depending 
upon  the  hydrostatic  head. 

Seepage  springs  are  those  in  which  the  water  seeps 
from  the  ground  in  a  more  or  less  restricted  area. 
Their  flow  is  seldom  large,  and  in  dry  seasons  may 
evaporate  almost  as  fast  as  it  reaches  the  surface. 
There  is  usually  abundant  vegetation  around  such 
springs,  also  scum  and  oily  matter  on  their  surface. 
This  oil  sciun  is  frequently  taken  as  an  indication  of 
oil  deposits  beneath  the  surface,  but  is  in  reality  due 
to  the  decomposing  vegetable  matter  or  to  iron.    The 


20  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

temperature  of  this  class  of  springs  is  usually  affected 
by  climatic  conditions,  and  they  are  not  very  cold. 
These  springs  belong  to  the  gravity  class. 

Tubular  springs  include  a  variety  of  forms  and  are 
usually  found  in  rocky,  especially  liinestone,  regions. 
The  water  feeding  such  springs  flows  through  passages 
in  the  rock  made  by  the  solution  of  soluble  substances, 
known  as  solution  passages.  They  often  follow 
porous  strata  such  as  sand  and  gravel  inclusions  in 
drift  rock.  They  may  find  a  channel  left  by  some 
decaying  vegetable  matter  and  utilize  it  as  a  means  of 
passage.  In  limestone  regions  such  passages  are  often 
very  long.  Underground  streams,  such  as  that  in 
Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky,  are  known  to  extend  for 
miles,  and  in  all  probability  are  of  much  greater 
length.  As  a  general  rule  this  type  of  spring  be- 
longs to  the  gravity  class. 

Fissure  springs  are  those  which  rise  from  joints, 
seams,  cleavage  planes,  or  fissures  in  the  rock.  They 
are  formed  by  the  plane  of  the  fissure  cutting  across 
the  plane  of  flow  of  the  underground  water.  They 
are  usually  of  deeper  origin  than  the  seepage  or  tubular 
springs.  Many  of  such  springs  may  be  found  emerg- 
ing in  the  same  plane  of  fracture  along  the  side  of  a 
hill,  or  along  the  edges  of  a  ravine. 

Springs  which  are  found  in  mountainous  and  rocky 
regions  are  usually  of  the  fissure  type  just  described 


SPRINGS  21 

Here  the  water  is  not  so  well  filtered  as  in  sandy  re- 
gions and  likewise  may  travel  for  long  distances  with 
comparatively  little  filtration.  About  all  the  filtering 
such  waters  receive  is  that  obtained  by  passing 
through  the  soil  and  subsoil;  for  as  soon  as  the  water 
reaches  the  rock  proper  it  finds  its  way  into  the  many 
crevices  and  joints  of  the  rock  mass  and  follows  these 
to  some  outlet.  Such  springs  are  likely  to  be  of  un- 
even flow,  as  their  source  is  more  or  less  directly 
dependent  upon  the  rainfall,  and  thereby  directly 
influenced  by  it.  They  are  also  more  likely  to  be 
contaminated,  as  the  water  has  not  had  the  chance  to 
became  purified  by  filtration,  as  is  the  case  in  sandy 
regions,  but  passes  into  the  joints  and  fissures  of  the 
rock.  Pollution  is  known  to  have  been  conveyed  long 
distances  by  just  such  formations  as  have  been 
described.  Water  from  such  springs  is  very  Hkely  to 
become  turbid  after  a  rain,  due  to  the  fact  that  more 
water  passes  through  the  soil  at  such  times  than  can 
be  filtered  properly,  and  carries  down  with  it  particles 
of  earth  or  rock  matter  in  suspension. 

Aside  from  joints  and  fissures  which  occur  in  lime- 
stone regions,  large  cavities  are  often  formed  which 
contain  water,  and  which  at  times  receive  the  dis- 
charge of  streams,  forming  what  are  known  as  lost 
streams.  This  water  with  no  filtration  or  purification 
may  appear  at  some  point  further  down  as  a  flowing 


22  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

spring,  and  will  be  grossly  polluted  by  the  material 
gathered  by  the  lost  stream  earlier  in  its  course. 

The  jointed  and  fissured  formation  of  the  rock  in 
limestone  regions  may  cause  springs  and  wells  to 
become   contaminated   from   apparently   impossible 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Fig.  2.     Wells  in  jointed  rocks. 

sources.  A  well  may  be  located  on  ground  higher  than 
and  some  distance  from  a  polluting  source  as  cess- 
pool or  barnyard;  but  the  joints  and  fissures  in  the 
rock  through  which  that  well  has  been  sunk,  or  which 
overlies  the  spring,  may  be  such  that  polluting  material 
can  easily  and  quickly  find  its  way  from  the  surface 
to  the  water  supply.  (Fig.  2.) 
Wells   and   springs  located  in   limestone   regions 


SPRINGS  23 

should  be  examined  most  carefully  both  as  to  water- 
shed and  subsurface  formations  before  they  are  used 
for  drinking  purposes. 

An  erroneous  idea  is  prevalent  in  the  minds  of 
many  people  that  a  lake  or  stream  even  in  remote 
proximity  to  a  spring  is  the  source  of  its  supply,  the 
water  finding  its  way  through  the  earth  to  the  outlet. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  most  lakes  and  streams  are  fed  by 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Fig.  3.     Movement  of  water  away  from  and  toward  lakes. 
N,   normal  position  of  water  table;   F,  position  during  floods. 

the  ground  water,  and  the  movement  of  this  water  is 
toward,  rather  than  away  from,  such  bodies  of  water. 
In  times  of  heavy  rainfall  or  other  condition  which  will 
cause  the  normal  level  of  the  lake  or  river  to  rise,  the 
movement  of  the  ground  water  may  be  reversed,  that 
is,  it  will  be  away  from,  rather  than  toward,  the  lake; 
but  as  soon  as  conditions  are  normal  the  movement 
of  ground  water  will  return  to  its  normal  course. 
(Fig.  3-) 


CHAPTER  V 

WELLS 

In  contradistinction  to  springs,  the  supply  of  water 
drawn  from  wells  does  not  reach  the  surface  by  its  own 
effort,  except  in  some  artesian  wells,  but  must  be 
lifted  by  mechanical  means.  A  well,  therefore,  is  a 
tube  of  varying  diameter  sunk  through  the  crust  of  the 
earth  into  the  water-bearing  strata  and  supplied  with 
some  mechanical  arrangement  for  lifting  the  water  to 
the  surface. 

The  yield  of  a  well  depends  on  its  depth,  its  topo- 
graphic location,  and  the  nature  of  the  rock  in  which 
it  is  made.  The  deeper  the  well  beyond  a  certain 
distance,  the  less  likely  is  water  to  be  found;  especially 
is  this  true  in  regions  composed  of  crystalline  rocks. 
The  pressure  of  the  rock  mass  from  above  closes  joints, 
seams  and  fissures,  allowing  little  or  no  water  to  pass. 

There  are  several  types  of  wells  known,  among  them 

being  the  dug,  bored,  drilled,  punched,  and  driven. 

All  these  types  may  be  used,  depending  upon  the 

nature  of  the  material  through  which  the  hole  is  sunk. 

In  rocky  regions  a  dug  well  would  be  difficult  to  sink, 

while  in  sandy  sections  it  would  be  easily  simk,  but 

24 


WELLS  25 

would  need  protection  by  shoring  while  the  digging 
was  in  progress.  Under  these  conditions  a  punched 
or  drilled  well  in  which  the  opening  would  be  of  a 
much  smaller  diameter,  and  in  which  the  casing  would 
be  carried  down  with  the  drill,  would  be  preferable. 

Artesian  wells  are  those  in  which  the  ground  water 
rises  toward  or  above  the  surface,  due  to  hydrostatic 
pressure.  "Gas  as  an  agent  in  causing  the  water  to 
rise  is  expressly  excluded  from  the  definition." 

The  word  artesian  is  derived  from  Artois,  an  ancient 
province  in  France  which  was  supplied  with  flowing 
wells.  According  to  Matson  (22)  there  are  six  con- 
ditions which  usually  produce  artesian  wells : 

1.  A  porous  bed  or  an  open  plane  or  channel  to 
permit  the  entrance  and  passage  of  water. 

2.  An  impervious  cap  to  prevent  the  upward  escape 
of  the  water. 

3.  An  inclination  of  the  water-bearing  bed  or 
passage. 

4.  -A  suitable  exposure  of  the  water-bearing  beds  or 
passages  above  the  level  of  the  surface  at  the  well  to 
permit  the  entrance  of  the  water. 

5.  An  adequate  rainfall  to  furnish  the  water. 

6.  An  absence  of  openings  which  will  permit  the 
ready  escape  of  water  at  a  level  below  the  well. 

The  disposition  of  geologic  strata  tends  to  the 
formation  of  artesian  conditions,  and  may  assume 


26 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS 


various  lorms.  The  simplest  form  is  that  in  which  a 
porous  saturated  layer,  such  as  sand,  gravel,  or  sand- 
stone, is  situated  between  two  impervious  layers,  the 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Fig.  4.      Artesian   slope.      A,   B,    C,   water-bearing   strata 
confined   between   impervious   strata   DD. 

whole  mass  being  disposed  in  an  inclined  plane.  When 
a  well  is  sunk  into  this  porous  layer  at  a  point  below 
its  source  of  supply  the  water  will  rise  in  the  well 
toward  or  above  the  surface  by  means  of  the  hydro- 
static pressure  under  which  it  has  been  confined. 
This  is  known  as  an  artesian  slope,  and  may  be  better 
understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  4. 

In  an  artesian  basin  we  have  a  condition  in  which 
two  slopes  meet  as  one  continuous  formation,  the 


Courtesy  U,  S.  Geol,  Survey. 

Fig.  5.  Artesian  basin.  A,  height  of  the  water  table  in 
saturated  gravel  B.  C  is  impervious  strata  confining  the 
waters  of  B.     DD,  flowing  wells. 

catchment   area   being   higher   on   both   sides   and 
gradually  sloping  into  a  valley.     (Fig.  5.)    A  well 


WELLS  27 

sunk  in  this  valley  to  the  water-bearing  strata  will 
produce  artesian  water.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  water  will  never  rise  in  a  boring  to  a  level  with 
its  source  of  supply.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
resistance  is  offered  by  the  stratum  through  which 
the  water  passes.  In  other  words,  the  permeability 
of  the  mass  may  be  so  sHght  that  the  water  passes 
through  with  difficulty,  due  to  the  friction  and  a 
consequent  loss  of  head. 

Solution  passages  in  limestone  will  often  produce 
artesian  conditions.    (Fig.  6.)     Such  passages  present 


Courtesy  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.     " 

Fig,  6.  Solution  passages.  A,  B,  C,  D,  wells  sunk  to  the 
underground  stream  of  water. 

no  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  water  through  the  rock, 
and  being  situated  on  an  incline  with  sufficient  head, 
artesian  conditions  are  produced. 

Artesian  conditions  are  produced  in  many  ways  that 
are  as  yet  little  if  any  understood.  Many  theories 
can  be  advanced,  but  when  put  into  practice  they  fall 
short  of  accomplishing  the  desired  ends.  Hydrog- 
raphers  tell  us  that  many  of  the  forces  making  for 


Perforated  Stoneware 
Pipes 


Fig.  7.     Well  properly  protected  by  tile  wall  laid  with  cement  joints. 


WELLS  29 

artesian  conditions  have  not  as  yet  been  explained, 
although  they  are  known  to  exist. 

Wells  are  subject  to  contamination  as  much  as  are 
springs,  and  it  is  as  necessary  to  protect  them  properly 
as  any  natural  source  of  supply.  Except  in  some  ar- 
tesian wells,  some  means  of  raising  the  water  to  the 
surface  must  be  resorted  to,  which  greatly  increases 
the  danger  of  pollution.  The  method  of  closing  the 
mouth  of  a  well  must  be  considered  carefully,  as  at  this 
point  a  great  amount  of  polluting  material  will  find 
entrance. 

If  the  well  is  of  the  dug  type  and  is  walled  with  stone 
or  brick,  the  upper  six  feet  of  the  wall  should  be  laid 
in  cement  and  should  extend  at  least  a  foot  above  the 
surface.  Around  this  wall  and  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  should  be  placed  a  layer  of  concrete  at  least 
six  inches  thick  and  four  feet  wide,  rising  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  wall  and  sloping  away  in  all  directions. 
Over  this  should  be  built  a  double  floor  or  platform 
of  wood,  the  boards  in  the  two  floors  being  laid  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  and  between  a  layer  of  concrete 
two  inches  thick.  This  platform  should  extend  as 
far  as  the  ring  of  concrete  beneath,  and  on  top  of  it 
should  be  placed  the  pump.  The  opening  in  the  floor 
through  which  the  pump  passes  should  be  made 
water-tight,  thus  preventing  surface  washings  gaining 
entrance  into  the  well. 


Curb 


Fig.  8.    Well  properly  protected  by  brick  wall  laid  in  cement. 


WELLS  31 

In  driven,  punched,  bored,  or  drilled  wells  the 
casing  is  carried  down  with  the  process  of  sinking  the 
well,  thus  shutting  out  danger  of  contamination  below 
the  surface.  The  surface  should  be  protected  in  a 
similar  manner  as  described  for  dug  wells,  and  the 
mouth  of  the  well  made  water-tight.  Figs.  7  and  8, 
taken  from  the  Kansas  State  Board  of  Health  Bulletin 
(35),  will  make  the  explanation  clearer. 


CHAPTER  VI 

WATERSHED 

By  watershed  is  meant  the  area  immediately  sur- 
rounding a  water  supply  so  situated  that  water  falling 
upon  it  will  be  directed  toward  this  supply.  Drain- 
age area  and  catchment  are  other  terms  some- 
times used  in  this  same  connection.  The  watershed 
is  of  immense  practical  and  sanitary  value  in  relation 
to  a  given  water  supply.  It  should  not  be  too  ex- 
tensive, as  it  would  then  be  difficult  to  control  properly 
and  keep  free  from  pollution.  Neither  should  it  be 
too  restricted,  for  in  rocky  regions  pollution  might  be 
absent  from  the  surface,  and  still  find  its  way  by 
subterranean  means  to  the  water  supply.  It  should 
be  uninhabited,  as  any  sort  of  habitation  for  either 
man  or  animals  contributes  to  pollution  by  means  of 
their  bodily  wastes.  If  inhabited,  the  buildings 
should  be  as  far  removed  from  the  spring  or  well  as 
possible  and  the  wastes  should  be  disposed  of  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  contami- 
nation. 

The  watershed  should  be  uncultivated,  as  culti- 
vated soil  is  rich  in  organic  matter  which  in  the 

32 


/ 


WATERSHED  33 

process  of  decay  adds  substances  to  the  water  which 
are  objectionable.  A  wooded  area  is  also  more  valu- 
able than  an  open  one,  as  it  conserves  the  water  supply 
by  preventing  evaporation.  From  what  has  been 
said  before,  sand  and  gravel  soil  and  subsoil  are 
preferable  to  a  rocky  or  clayey  one. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  foregoing  requirements  of 
an  ideal  watershed  must  go  a  knowledge  of  the 
geologic  conditions  underlying  the  area,  as  favorable 
conditions  may  prevail  upon  the  surface  and  un- 
favorable conditions  be  found  beneath. 

Ability  to  interpret  the  conditions  found  by  an 
inspection  of  a  watershed,  the  ''sanitary  survey,"  is  of 
immense  practical  value  and  forms  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  trio  of  examinations  which  must  be  made 
in  order  to  determine  the  safety  and  purity  of  a  water 
supply;  the  other  two  being  the  chemical  and  bac- 
teriological examinations,  which  will  be  discussed  in 
later  chapters. 

Some  authorities  consider  the  sanitary  survey  the 
most  important,  and  say  that  if  they  had  to  choose 
only  one  method  of  examining  a  water  supply,  that 
method  would  be  the  sanitary  survey,  as  it  would 
afford  the  most  practical  and  satisfactory  results. 
Fuller  (10)  says:  ''Careful  examination  of  the  spring 
itself  and  a  common-sense  inspection  of  its  surround- 
ings are  usually  of  more  value  than  an  analysis." 
3 


34  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

The  study  of  conditions  as  outlined  above  relating 
to  habitations,  cultivated  areas,  forest  or  plain, 
composition  of  soil  and  subsoil,  the  location  upon  the 
watershed  of  any  possible  sources  of  pollution,  all 
go  to  make  up  that  which  we  know  as  the  sanitary 
survey. 

Manufactories  at  times  remotely  situated  from  a 
water  supply  may  have  a  decided  influence  in  either 
or  both  of  two  ways:  first,  by  discharging  fumes  and 
gases  into  the  atmosphere,  which  are  absorbed  by  the 
falling  rain  and  are  carried  through  the  earth  to  the 
point  of  exit  of  the  spring;  secondly,  by  discharging 
waste  matter  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  where 
the  falling  rain  will  carry  it  downward  through  the  soil 
to  the  ground- water  table;  or  by  both  methods  com- 
bined. 

In  rocky  and  limestone  regions  this  pollution  by 
factory  or  other  wastes  may  be  of  considerable  im- 
portance, as  pollution  has  been  traced  for  long  dis- 
tances in  such  regions.  There  are  several  historical 
instances  on  record  of  the  contamination  of  a  water 
supply.  In  a  certain  city  in  the  South  a  few  years  ago 
pollution  was  traced  to  the  water  supply  from  a  source 
more  than  three-fourths  of  a  mile  distant.  In  this  case 
surface  pollution  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
supply  was  guarded  against  as  the  water  was  taken 
from  deep  wells  situated  on  the  side  of  the  valley.    Up 


WATERSHED  35 

this  valley  less  than  a  mile  were  a  slaughter-house  and 
some  negro  cabins  in  one  of  which  there  had  been  a 
case  of  typhoid  fever  prior  to  the  outbreak  in  the  city. 
The  country  surrounding  this  city  is  quite  hilly,  the 
prevailing  formation  being  of  limestone.  The  stream 
which  ran  past  the  slaughter-house  and  the  negro 
cabins  soon  disappeared  beneath  the  surface  and  was 
lost  sight  of.  Upon  investigation  it  was  suspected 
that  this  stream  might  be  the  source  from  which  the 
city  wells  drew  their  supply,  and  to  verify  it,  large 
quantities  of  salt  were  dumped  into  the  stream  be- 
fore it  disappeared.  Soon  after,  at  stated  intervals, 
samples  of  water  were  collected  from  the  wells  by 
vigorous  pumping,  and  the  marked  rise  of  the  chlorine 
content  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt  the  direct  con- 
nection between  the  wells  and  the  underground  stream. 

The  following  incident  described  by  Harrington  (12) 
is  of  special  interest  in  this  connection. 
^'Epidemic  at  Lausen,  Switzerland. 

^*Up  to  1872,  this  village  of  780  inhabitants  had  not 
been  visited  by  typhoid  fever,  even  in  sporadic  cases, 
for  sixty  years.  On  August  7th,  with  no  previous  warn- 
ing, ten  persons  were  seized,  and  during  the  next  ten 
days  nearly  60  more.  The  number  of  cases  increased 
from  day  to  day,  until  130  persons,  or  one-sixth  of  the 
entire  population,  had  been  seized.  So  large  a  per- 
centage of  involvement  pointed  to  some  common 
cause,  and  the  immunity  enjoyed  by  the  inmates  of  a 


36  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

group  of  houses  not  connected  with  the  public  water 
supply  directed  attention  to  the  latter,  which  was 
derived  from  a  spring  at  the  foot  of  a  ridge  about  300 
feet  high,  between  the  village  and  the  Fuhrler  valley. 
In  this  valley,  at  a  point  between  one  and  two  miles 
distant  from  Lausen,  was  an  isolated  farm  where 
dwelt  a  man  who,  on  June  loth,  shortly  after  his  return 
from  a  visit,  was  taken  sick  with  typhoid  fever. 
Before  the  end  of  July,  three  more  cases  developed  in 
the  same  house.  The  discharges  of  all  four  were 
thrown  into  a  brook  in  which  the  family  washing  was 
done,  and  which  served  to  irrigate  the  meadows  below. 
Whenever  it  was  dammed  up  for  this  purpose,  the 
volume  of  the  water  supply  beyond  the  ridge  was 
noticeably  increased.  Between  July  15th  and  the 
end  of  the  month,  the  meadows  had  been  submerged 
by  this  process,  and  within  three  weeks  from  the 
beginning  of  the  operation,  the  explosion  occurred  in 
Lausen. 

''The  sequence  of  events  was,  then,  the  appearance 
of  the  initial  case  on  June  loth,  and  of  three  more  in 
the  same  house  before  the  end  of  July,  the  daily  pollu- 
tion of  the  water  of  the  brook,  the  damming  of  the 
brook  in  the  middle  of  July,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  first  case  in  Lausen  on  August  7th.  Everything 
pointed  to  direct  connection  between  the  impounded 
water  and  the  spring  a  mile  or  more  distant  on  the 
other  side  of  the  ridge,  and  its  existence  was  estab- 
lished by  dumping  about  a  ton  of  salt  into  the  brook 
and  noting  the  speedy  appearance  in  the  Lausen 
spring.     As  a  very  large  amount  of  flour,  deposited 


/ 


WATERSHED  37 

at  the  same  place,  gave  no  evidence  of  its  appearance, 
even  in  traces,  it  was  proved  that  the  water  passed 
through  a  coarse  filtering  medium  rather  than  through 
an  open  underground  passage."     (Pages  379-380.) 

In  order  to  detect  the  course  of  underground  bodies 
of  water,  many  methods  have  been  devised  and  used 
with  more  or  less  success.  These  consist  in  introduc- 
ing into  a  stream,  spring,  or  well  some  chemical 
substance  which  can  be  detected  later  either  by 
chemical  analysis  or  by  its  color.  In  this  way  pollu- 
tion is  often  traced  which  would  otherwise  escape 
detection. 

The  surface  conditions  do  not  always  hold  good  for 
deeper  formations,  and  indications  which  point,  on  the 
surface,  to  a  safe  water  supply  free  from  all  possible 
sources  of  pollution  may  be  entirely  at  fault  when 
the  subsurface  structure  and  formation  are  ex- 
amined. 

Among  the  substances  which  have  been  used  as 
indicators  are  the  following:  sodium,  calcium,  or 
ammonium  chloride,  potassium  nitrate,  salts  of 
lithium  and  iron,  all  of  which  may  be  recognized  by 
chemical  or  physical  tests;  potassium  permanganate, 
fuchsin,  Kongo  red,  methylene  blue,  and  fluorescein, 
which  dissolve  in  the  water  and  are  recognized  by  their 
color;  starch  and  flour,  which  are  suspended  in  water 
and  recognized  by  microscopic  examination;  and  cul- 


^S  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

tures  of  various  organisms  having  peculiarities  which 
permit  their  ready  identification. 

Dole  (6),  from  whom  the  above  classification  is 
taken,  tells  us  that  the  principal  requisites  in  the  choice 
of  an  indicator  are:  ^'(i)  It  should  descend  to  and 
traverse  the  aquifer  in  a  manner  and  rate  similar  to 
the  water  itself.  (2)  It  should  be  easily  and  quickly 
detectable  in  the  samples  of  water  taken.  (3)  It 
should  not  be  decomposed  nor  its  intensity  greatly 
affected  by  the  materials  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact. 

''For  different  purposes  and  in  different  materials 
the  selection  of  an  indicator  is  varied.  For  determin- 
ing the  percentage  of  water  entering  one  level  from 
another,  the  chlorides  are  especially  fitted,  because  the 
amounts  present  can  be  accurately  and  rapidly 
determined.  When,  however,  the  volumes  of  water 
are  extremely  large  and  the  subterranean  journey 
is  long  the  amount  of  salt  or  other  chloride  necessary 
to  cause  an  estimable  change  in  chlorine  content  is 
so  great  thaj:  the  experiment  is  often  impracticable. 
For  the  study  of  underground  flows  in  alluvial  deposits 
the  use  of  ammonium  chloride  and  sodium  chloride 
as  electrolytes  appears  to  be  especially  good.  For 
investigating  the  purification  power  of  strata  through 
which  water  passes,  cultures  of  beer-yeast  have  proven 
very  satisfactory.     For  tracing  the  flow,  however,  of 


WATERSHED  39 

large  or  small  underground  streams  through  well- 
defined  channels  of  size  in  rocks,  especially  calcareous 
formations,  fluorescein  has  proved  superior  to  any- 
thing else  which  has  been  tried.  Its  diffusion  is  rapid, 
it  is  applicable  under  many  conditions,  and  it  can  be 
easily  detected  in  enormous  dilutions  by  means  of  the 
fluoroscope  when  it  is  not  present  in  quantities  large 
enough  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  On  account 
of  its  many  admirable  qualifications,  fluorescein  has 
been  extensively  used  by  the  city  of  Paris  in  the  study 
of  springs  from  which  the  major  part  of  the  drinking 
water  is  taken." 

Fluorescein  travels  at  a  somewhat  slower  rate  than 
does  the  water  in  which  it  is  contained.  This  is  due  in 
part  to  its  greater  density,  which  permits  it  to  collect 
in  low  places  in  its  path.  Thus,  the  dye  may  be 
noted  at  intervals  after  a  single  application  to  a  water 
supply,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  will  tend  to  collect  in 
low  spots  and  later  be  carried  farther  by  an  increase 
in  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  water. 

Fluorescein  can  be  readily  detected  by  the  unaided 
eye  in  dilutions  of  .625  part  per  million  parts  of 
water;  and  by  means  of  the  fluoroscope  one  part  in  ten 
billion  parts  of  water  may  be  seen. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MINERAL  WATER 

The  term  mineral  water  as  used  in  this  work  com- 
prises all  natural  waters  sold  in  bottles,  or  used  at 
various  resorts  for  drinking,  bathing,  or  other  medic- 
inal purposes.  It  is  hard  to  formulate  a  satisfactory 
definition  for  mineral  water,  as  it  varies  so  much  as 
to  composition  and  use  that  a  definition  as  applied  to 
waters  from  one  locality  would  be  totally  inadequate 
when  applied  to  those  of  another  region.  Definitions 
of  various  authorities  have  been  collected  and  are 
here  given. 

Peale  (23)  defines  mineral  waters  as  "all  waters  put 
on  the  market,  whether  they  are  utilized  as  drinking 
or  table  waters,  or  for  medicinal  purposes,  or  used  in 
any  other  way." 

Ossian  Henry  (i)  says  that  "mineral  waters  are 
those  waters  which,  coming  from  the  bosom  of  the 
earth  at  variable  depths,  bring  with  them  substances 
which  may  have  upon  the  animal  economy  a  medici- 
nal action,  capable  of  giving  rise  to  effects  often 
very  salutary  in  the  different  diseases  affecting 
humanity." 

M.  Durian-Fardel  (i)  tells  us  that  "mineral  waters 
40 


MINERAL   WATER  41 

are  those  natural  waters  which  are  used  in  therapeutics 
because  of  their  chemical  composition  or  their  temper- 
atures." 

According  to  Crook  (4)  "the  term  ^mineral  water'  is 
applied  to  those  waters  which  are  used  in  the  treatment 
of  disease,  either  by  internal  administration  or  by 
external  application,  and  which  owe  their  virtue  to 
their  solid  or  gaseous  constituents  or  to  their  elevated 
temperature." 

Hessler  (16)  defines  mineral  waters  as  follows:  "As 
ordinarily  understood,  the  term  'mineral  water'  is 
applied  to  a  water  which  is  used  in  the  treatment  of 
diseases,  either  internally  or  externally,  and  which 
differs  from  ordinary  waters  in  that  it  holds  in  solu- 
tion certain  solids  or  gases.  Mineral  water  may  come 
from  springs  or  wells,  especially  deep  wells." 

Walton  (i)  says  "a  mineral  water  in  the  medical 
acceptation  of  the  term  is  one,  which  by  virtue  of  its 
ingredients,  whether  mineral,  organic,  or  gaseous,  or 
the  principle  of  heat,  is  especially  applicable  to  the 
treatment  of  disease." 

Bailey  (i)  quotes  Herpin's  definition  as  "all  waters 
which,  by  the  nature  of  their  principles  or  by 
their  therapeutic  action,  differ  from  drinkable 
waters." 

Bailey  (i)  himself  says  that  "mineral  waters  are 
those  natural  waters  which  contain  an  excess  of  some 
ordinary  ingredients,  or  a  small  quantity  of  some  rare 
ingredients,  and  which  on  this  account  are  used  as 
remedial  agents." 

The  First  International  Food  Congress  at  its  meet- 


42  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

ing  in  1908  determined  that  ^'a  natural  water  is,  from 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  that  which  at  its  place  of 
origin,  as  it  bursts  forth  from  the  ground,  is  directly 
placed  in  the  same  receptacle  in  which  it  is  delivered 
to  the  consumer."  At  a  second  session  of  this  Con- 
gress in  1909,  this  definition  was  slightly  changed  and 
made  to  read  as  ''a  natural  water  is,  from  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  a  Water  free  from  harmful 
germs,  which  at  its  place  of  origin,  as  it  bursts  from 
the  ground,  is  directly  placed  in  the  same  receptacle 
in  which  it  is  delivered  to  the  consumer." 

The  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection  (31)  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has  decided  that 
"a  natural  mineral  water  is  a  water  that  has  had 
nothing  added  to  it  or  abstracted  from  it  after  issuing 
from  source." 

The  old  idea  that  a  water  to  be  commercially  ex- 
ploited must  possess  some  magic  charm  for  the  healing 
of  any  and  all  the  ills  of  life  has  been  exploded  in 
recent  years.  The  water  enjoying  the  largest  sale  in 
the  United  States  to-day  makes  no  other  claims  than 
freedom  from  impurities  and  adaptabiHty  for  table 
use.  Some  waters  widely  advertised  as  possessing 
medicinal  properties  fall  far  short  of  measuring  up 
to  their  own  standard  when  subjected  to  critical 
and  severe  examination. 

Waters  containing  only  a  trace  of  some  medicinal 
agent,  as  lithium,  possess  no  healing  value  over  any 
other  water  for  the  simple  reason  that  in  order  to 


MINERAL  WATER  43 

obtain  a  medicinal  dose  of  the  element  it  would  be 
necessary  to  drink  enormous  quantities  of  the  water. 
Hessler  (i6)  says  *4t  would  be  disagreeable  to  be  com- 
pelled to  drink  a  gallon  of  water  for  the  sake  of  the 
few  grains  of  Hthium  in  it.  Many  of  the  so-called 
lithia  waters  are  really  very  pure  waters,  with  a  trace 
of  hthium,  just  enough  of  it  so  the  name  can  be  ap- 
pHed,  although  it  may  require  the  aid  of  a  spectroscope 
to  show  that  it  is  present." 

On  second  thought  it  is  seen  how  useless  are  such 
claims  regarding  this  class  of  waters.  In  order  to  get 
the  desired  medicinal  results,  it  is  better  to  add  the 
chemical  in  the  form  of  a  powder  or  tablet  in  definite 
quantity  to  the  water,  and  thereby  get  the  therapeutic 
effect  directly. 

Mineral  waters  are  classified  in  various  ways  by 
various  authorities,  according  to  whether  the  chemical 
composition,  medicinal  property,  or  geological  source 
is  used  as  a  basis. 

Geologically,  waters  are  classed  as  vadose  and  mag- 
matic,  the  former  being  of  superficial  and  the  latter 
of  deep-seated  origin.  Practically  all  mineral  waters 
used  commercially  are  of  vadose  origin;  while  many 
thermal  springs  are  undoubtedly  of  magmatic  origin. 
Thermal  waters  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "juve- 
nile," in  that  they  reach  the  surface  for  the  first  time. 
Vadose  waters  are  usually  more  variable  in  composi- 


44  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

tion  and  flow  than  are  magmatic  waters.  Waters  of 
deep  origin  may  contain  in  solution  different  chem- 
ical salts  from  those  of  superficial  origin. 

Therapeutically,  waters  may  be  classed  according 
to  the  principal  medicinal  agent  they  contain,  pro- 
vided this  agent  is  present  in  sufficient  amounts  to 
produce  therapeutic  action  by  the  use  of  small  or 
moderate  quantities  of  the  water. 

By  far  the  largest  class  of  waters,  therapeutically 
speaking,  are  the  laxative  and  cathartic  waters. 
These  waters  are  so  highly  charged  with  the  sulphates 
of  sodium  and  magnesium  that  they  exert  a  decidedly 
laxative  or  cathartic  effect  upon  the  system  when 
taken  in  moderate  amounts.  Hunyadi  Janos  and 
several  of  the  Saratoga  waters  are  examples  of  this 
class.  They  act  freely  upon  the  bowels  and  kidneys, 
causing  free  and  easy  evacuations  and  stimulat- 
ing these  organs  to  activity  when  they  become 
sluggish. 

Another  classification  that  is  frequently  made  is  that 
of  hard  and  soft  waters.  Hard  waters  are  those  con- 
taining a  large  proportion  of  Hme  salts  in  relation  to 
the  total  mineral  content,  while  soft  waters  have  a 
minimum  of  lime  in  comparison  with  the  other 
mineral  ingredients.  Hardness  is  again  spoken  of  as 
temporary  and  permanent,  the  former  being  elimi- 
nated by  boiling,  while  the  latter  is  not.     This  point 


MINERAL  WATER  45 

will  be  discussed  more  fully  when  the  analysis  from  a 
chemical  standpoint  is  considered. 

Many  waters  possess  the  ability  to  absorb  material 
from  the  walls  of  vessels  in  which  they  are  contained. 
Such  waters  contain  free  carbon  dioxid  gas  which 
reacts  with  the  lead  or  zinc  of  pipes,  taking  these 
metals  into  solution,  thereby  becoming  dangerous  to 
health  when  taken  into  the  system.  Many  cases  of 
lead  poisoning  have  been  traced  to  such  sources.  Soft 
waters  known  to  contain  free  carbonic  acid  to  any 
extent  should  never  be  conducted  through  lead  or  zinc 
pipes,  nor  should  they  stand  in  such  vessels.  The 
carbonates  of  lead  and  zinc  are  formed  by  the  action 
of  the  carbonic  acid  on  these  metals,  and  as  these  salts 
are  readily  soluble  in  water  their  presence  is  not  sus- 
pected until  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  seen. 

For  commercial  purposes  the  best  classification 
seems  to  be  a  chemical  one,  and  that  proposed  by 
Haywood  (13)  is  the  most  satisfactory  yet  devised. 
No  one  classification  will  meet  the  conditions  found 
in  all  waters.  The  diverse  composition  of  mineral 
waters  precludes  the  possibility  of  any  definite  and 
fixed  classification.  General  rules  may  be  laid  down, 
but  there  are  so  many  exceptions  that  following  them 
closely  is  out  of  the  question.  The  following  is  Hay- 
wood's classification: 


46 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS 


Group       Class 


'^*\ 


^1 


Subclass 
f  Carbonated  or\  Sodic 


II, 


Allcalinp  J  bicarbonated. 
Alkaline     Berated. 

[  Silicated. 

Sulphated. 

Muriated. 

Nitrated. 

Sulphated. 

Muriated. 

Nitrated. 

Sulphated. 

Muriated. 


AlkaHne 
saline. 


III.  Saline. 

IV.  Acid. 


Lithic. 

Potassic. 

Calcic. 

Magnesic. 

Ferruginous. 

Aluminic. 

Arsenic. 

Bromic. 

Iodic. 

Silicious. 

Boric. 


Nongaseous. 

Carbondioxated. 

Sulphuretted. 

Azotized. 

Carburetted. 

Oxygenated. 


All  waters  with  a  temperature  above  70°  F.  are 
classed  as  thermal  waters,  and  those  with  a  tempera- 
ture below  70°  F.  as  nonthermal.  Waters  with  a 
temperature  between  70°  and  98.6°  F.  are  known  as 
tepid  or  warm,  while  those  with  a  temperature  above 
98.6°  F.  are  classed  as  hot  waters.  All  waters,  no 
matter  what  their  chemical  composition,  medicinal 
value,  or  geologic  source,  may  fall  under  one  or  the 
other  of  these  groups. 

When  an  examination  of  their  chemical  composition 
is  made  they  are  grouped  under  the  four  following 
classes:  alkaline,  alkaline-saline,  saline,  and  acid. 
Each  class  is  again  divided  and  indicated  by 
terms  which  represent  the  predominant  con- 
stituents. 

According  to  Haywood  (13)  ''alkaline  waters  are 
(i)  those  which  have  an  alkaline  reaction  and  contain 
carbonic    or  bicarbonic  acid  ions  in    predominating 


MINERAL  WATER  47 

quantities;  (2)  those  which  have  an  alkaline  reaction 
and  contain  boric  or  silicic  acid  ions  in  predominat- 
ing quantities,  where  it  can  be  proved  that  the  alka- 
linity is  largely  due  to  the  presence  of  borates  or 
silicates. 

''Saline  waters  are  those  which  have  an  alkaline  or 
neutral  reaction  and  contain  sulphuric,  muriatic,  or 
nitric  acid  ions  in  predominating  quantities. 

"Alkaline-saline  waters  are  between  alkaline  and 
saline.  They  embrace  those  which  have  an  alkaline 
reaction  and  contain  (i)  sulphuric,  muriatic,  or  nitric 
acid  ions  along  with  carbonic  or  bicarbonic  acid  ions, 
both  classes  being  present  as  predominating  con- 
stituents or  those  which  have  an  alkaline  reaction,  and 
(2)  contain  sulphuric,  muriatic,  or  nitric  acid  ions 
along  with  boric  or  silicic  acid  ions,  both  classes  being 
present  as  predominating  constituents,  where  it  can 
be  proved  that  the  alkaUnity  is  largely  due  to  the 
presence  of  borates  or  silicates. 

"Acid  waters  are  those  which  have  an  acid  reaction, 
and  contain  either  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid  ions  in 
predominating  quantities." 

Nearly  all  waters  contain  some  gas  in  solution,  and 
many  of  them  large  quantities.  Carbon  dioxid  is  the 
gas  most  frequently  found.  Other  gases,  such  as 
hydrogen  sulphid,  nitrogen,  methane,  or  oxygen  are 
frequently  present.     The  following  terms  which  ap- 


48  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

pear  in  Haywood's  classification  are  used  to  designate 
the  waters  containing  these  gases: 

Nongaseous containing  no  gas. 

Carbondioxated containing  carbon  dioxid  gas. 

Sulphuretted containinghydrogensulphidgas. 

Azotized containing  nitrogen  gas. 

Carburetted containing  methane  gas. 

Oxygenated containing  oxygen  gas. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION 

In  a  previous  chapter  the  statement  is  made  that 
three  different  examinations  are  necessary  to  arrive 
at  a  proper  conclusion  regarding  the  sanitary  quality 
of  a  given  water  supply:  the  sanitary  survey,  the 
chemical  analysis,  and  the  bacteriological  analysis. 
The  question  of  the  sanitary  survey  has  already  been 
discussed  (see  p.  33),  and  the  chemical  examination 
will  now  be  considered.  Methods  of  analysis  will 
not  be  given  in  detail,  but  rather  the  interpretation 
of  these  results  will  be  discussed.  For  detailed  infor- 
mation the  reader  is  referred  to  one  of  the  many 
standard  works  upon  the  subject. 

A  matter  worthy  of  consideration  in  regard  to  the 
chemical  composition  of  a  water  is  the  variation  which 
it  will  undergo  during  a  given  period.  Analyses  of 
samples  of  water  from  the  same  source  at  intervening 
periods  will  show  a  variation — often  marked — in  one 
or  more  constituents.  This  may  be  accounted  for 
easily  if  we  stop  to  consider  the  many  underground  pas- 
sages which  a  water  traverses  in  reaching  the  surface. 
One  or  more  of  these  passages  bearing  water  of  a 
4  49 


50  UNDERGROUND    WATERS 

certain  composition  may  become  occluded,  and  others 
may  open  up  water-bearing  strata  of  a  different  com- 
position. In  this  way  variations  will  sometimes  be 
found  in  a  chemical  analysis  of  water  from  the  same 
source. 

The  length  of  time  elapsing  between  the  collection 
and  examination  of  samples  often  causes  changes  in 
the  water;  also  the  kind  of  vessel  in  which  the  sample 
is  contained  will  influence  the  result.  Water  for 
chemical  analysis  should  never  be  placed  in  any  but 
glass  vessels,  these  being  of  hard  flint  glass  which  has 
been  thoroughly  cleaned  of  free  alkali  or  other  soluble 
substances.  Jugs  or  other  earthenware  vessels  should 
never  be  used  for  the  collection  of  samples  for  chemical 
analysis. 

For  sanitary  purposes  the  determination  of  all  the 
different  salts  in  solution  in  the  water  is  of  no  impor- 
tance, as  many  of  them  bear  no  relation  whatever  to 
the  purity  of  a  given  water.  For  therapeutic  pur- 
poses, however,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  exact 
chemical  composition  of  a  given  water  in  order  to 
determine  its  action  when  taken  into  the  human 
body.  Infinite  harm  may  be  done  a  patient  by  the 
use  of  a  water  high  in  mineral  content  not  adapted 
to  his  particular  condition. 

In  the  sanitary  chemical  analysis  of  a  water,  nin^ 
things  must  be  looked  for,  as  follows: 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  5 1 

1.  Free  ammonia. 

2.  Albuminoid  ammonia. 

3.  Nitrites. 

4.  Nitrates. 

5.  Chlorine. 

6.  Phosphates. 

7.  Organic  and  volatile  matter. 

8.  Hardness. 

9.  Total  solids. 

The  physical  examination,  which  comprises  the 
color,  odor,  sediment,  and  appearance  of  the  sample, 
is  usually  made  at  the  time  of  making  the  chemical 
analysis. 

Color  is  determined  by  the  use  of  a  standard  solu- 
tion, known  as  the  platinum-cobalt  color  standard. 
To  this  solution  is  given  the  value  of  500.  A  given 
quantity  of  the  water  imder  examination  is  compared 
with  varying  dilutions  of  this  standard  and  the 
results  obtained  are  expressed  in  numerals  as  10,  20, 
30,  etc. 

Odor  is  determined  both  hot  and  cold;  hot  when 
the  water  is  heated  to  100°  C,  and  is  expressed  in  such 
terms  as  marshy,  fishy,  sweetish,  etc.  Odor  is  mainly 
due  to  the  presence  of  algae  which  produce  a  volatile 
oil  in  their  growth  which  is  given  off  to  the  water. 

Sediment  is  the  amount  of  insoluble  matter  present 
in  the  water  and  which  collects  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel  upon  standing.     It  is  also  known  as  tur- 


52  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

bidity,  and  is  determined  by  comparing  a  given 
quantity  of  the  water  with  a  standard  containing  a 
known  amount  of  diatomaceous  earth  in  distilled 
water.  Bottled  samples  should  be  thoroughly  shaken 
just  before  the  comparison  is  made. 

Appearance  is  determined  by  the  eye,  and  is  ex- 
pressed in  such  terms  as  clear,  cloudy,  etc. 

Turning  now  to  the  sanitary  analysis  we  look  for  the 
substances  enumerated  on  page  51.  The  first  of 
these  is  free  ammonia. 

Free  Ammonia. — This  is  determined  by  distilling  a 
definite  quantity  of  water  and  collecting  the  distillate 
in  long  tubes  of  clear  glass,  known  as  Nessler  tubes, 
and  to  each  of  these  tubes  2  c.c.  of  a  solution  of 
potassium  iodide,  mercuric  chloride,  and  potassium 
hydroxide  are  added.  The  amount  of  free  ammonia 
present  is  determined  by  the  color  produced,  and  is 
calculated  from  control  tubes  containing  a  definite 
known  amount  of  ammonia  and  the  solution  spoken  of 
above,  viz. :  Nessler's  solution. 

Albuminoid  Ammonia. — After  the  free  ammonia 
has  all  been  removed  from  the  water  by  distillation,  a 
solution  composed  of  potassium  hydroxide  and 
potassium  permanganate  is  added  and  the  distilling 
process  continued.  Portions  of  this  distillate  are 
collected  and  tested  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  just 
described  for  free  ammonia. 


CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION  53 

The  presence  in  a  water  of  any  considerable  amounts 
of  ammonia  in  either  of  the  forms  described  suggests 
pollution.  Albuminoid  ammonia  is  really  not  am- 
monia at  all,  but  is  nitrogenous  organic  matter  known 
as  protein.  These  proteins  are  derived  from  either 
animal  or  vegetable  tissue,  and  their  presence  in  water 
shows  it  to  have  been  in  contact  with  either  one  or  the 
other  of  these  substances.  As  there  is  organic  matter 
present  in  all  soils  it  can  be  seen  -readily  that  all 
underground  waters  will  contain  at  least  traces  of  this 
nitrogenous  matter. 

A  water,  the  source  of  which  is  protected  absolutely 
from  animal  pollution,  but  which  may  be  surrounded 
by  a  thick  vegetable  growth,  such  as  forest,  will  show 
the  presence  of  albuminoid  and  free  ammonia  often 
in  considerable  quantities,  and  yet  be  perfectly  pure 
and  safe  to  use;  another  argument  for  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  source  of  a  water  before  final  judg- 
ment is  passed  thereon. 

When  a  water  is  polluted  by  animal  wastes  and  the 
ammonias  are  present  in  any  considerable  quantities, 
bacteriological  examination  will  usually  reveal  the 
presence  of  organisms  of  a  type  found  in  contaminat- 
ing material.  While  if  a  water  whose  ammonias  are 
due  to  vegetable  matter  is  examined  bacteriologically 
the  characteristic  microorganisms  will  be  absent. 

There  is  what  is  known  as  a  nitrogen  cycle,  of  which 


54  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

albuminoid  ammonia  is  the  first  step,  and  free  am- 
monia the  next.  After  free  ammonia  comes  nitrites 
which  are  finally  changed  to  nitrates,  thus  completing 
the  cycle.  We  will  now  pass  to  the  discussion  of 
nitrites  and  nitrates  and  then  complete  the  discussion 
of  all  four  forms  of  nitrogen. 

Nitrites. — Nitrites  are  tested  for  by  placing  a 
definite  quantity  of  the  water  under  examination  in 
Nessler  tubes  and  after  adding  a  drop  or  two  of  strong 
hydrochloric  acid  to  each  tube  a  small  quantity  of  a 
solution  of  sulphanilic  acid  and  naphthalamine  hydro- 
chloride are  added.  Control  tubes  containing  a  known 
amount  of  nitrite  are  treated  in  the  same  way  and  the 
red  color  produced  by  the  reaction  of  the  various 
solutions  in  the  known  and  unknown  tubes  is  com- 
pared. From  the  results  obtained  the  amount  of 
nitrite  present  is  determined. 

Nitrates. — Nitrates  are  determined  by  evaporating 
a  given  quantity  of  water  to  dryness  and  moistening 
the  residue  with  phenolsulphonic  acid.  After  the 
residue  is  moistened,  distilled  water  and  strong  am- 
monia are  added.  The  whole  is  then  transferred  to 
Nessler  tubes  and  the  color  produced  is  compared 
with  tubes  containing  known  amounts  of  a  nitrate, 
the  amount  of  nitrates  present  in  the  sample  being 
calculated  from  these  data. 

Referring  now  to  the  nitrogen  cycle  we  find  that 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  55 

the  form  in  which  nitrogen  is  introduced  into  the 
water  is  protein  or  albuminoid  ammonia.  This  is 
transformed  into  free  ammonia  by  means  of  certain 
species  of  bacteria  which  were  present  in  the  soil 
through  which  the  water  passed.  It  might  be  well 
to  state  here  that  free  ammonia  may  find  its  way  into 
the  soil  and  directly  into  water  supplies  by  means  of 
fumes  which  are  present  in  the  air  in  the  vicinity  of 
industrial  plants  such  as  chemical  factories.  Its 
presence  under  such  conditions  would  have  no  sani- 
tary significance  imless  present  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  have  a  direct  action  upon  the  living  organism. 

By  the  action  of  the  bacteria  which  have  just  been 
mentioned  the  free  ammonia  is  changed  into  nitrites, 
and  these  in  turn  are  converted  into  nitrates.  When 
this  form  of  nitrogen  is  reached  no  further  change  can 
take  place,  and  we  have  a  stable  compound  which 
cannot  be  further  broken  up  or  changed.  The  two 
forms  of  ammonia  and  nitrites  are  transition  forms  in 
this  process  and  show  more  or  less  recent  pollution. 
When  the  ammonias  are  high  and  the  nitrates  low, 
with  a  trace  of  nitrites,  it  indicates  quite  recent 
additions  of  nitrogenous  matter  to  the  water.  When 
nitrites  are  more  in  evidence  and  the  ammonias  are 
low,  it  suggests  that  pollution  has  been  quite  recent 
but  is  lessened.  When  both  ammonias  and  nitrites 
are  low  and  nitrates  high,  it  shows  that  polluting 


56  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

material  has  gained  access  to  the  water  some  time 
in  the  past,  but  that  no  pollution  is  taking  place  at  the 
present  time.  Such  a  water  at  the  time  the  examina- 
tion was  made  might  be  safe  to  use,  but  the  fact  that 
it  showed  past  pollution  would  suggest  the  necessity 
of  safeguarding  it  against  subsequent  pollution. 

This  process  of  change  from  ammonias  to  nitrites 
and  then  to  nitrates  is  known  as  oxidation.  The 
opposite  process,  known  as  reduction,  may  take  place 
under  certain  conditions,  and  the  nitrates  present  in  a 
water  may  be  changed  back  to  nitrites  and  these  in 
turn  converted  into  free  ammonia,  but  never  into 
albuminoid  ammonia.  When  some  chemicals,  such 
as  iron  in  one  form,  are  present  in  the  strata  through 
which  the  water  passes,  they  will  act  upon  any 
nitrates  which  may  be  present  and  reduce  them  to 
nitrites.  Such  conditions  bear  no  sanitary  significance 
whatever.  Usually  when  nitrites  are  present  due  to 
the  reduction  of  nitrates  the  ammonias  will  be  very 
low,  or  entirely  absent.  So  we  find  that  the  question 
of  interpreting  analytical  results  must  be  looked  at 
from  all  points  of  view  before  a  final  decision  is 
reached. 

Chlorine. — The  test  for  chlorine  is  quite  simple  and 
is  easily  made.  To  a  definite  quantity  of  water  in  a 
Nessler  tube  add  a  small  amount  of  a  solution  of 
potassium  chromate  which  produces  a  yellow  color. 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  57 

A  standard  solution  of  silver  nitrate  is  now  added 
until  the  yellow  color  disappears  and  a  reddish  tinge 
is  given  to  the  water.  From  the  amount  of  silver 
nitrate  solution  used  the  amount  of  chlorine  present 
is  calculated. 

In  interpreting  the  results  of  a  chlorine  analysis  it 
is  very  important  to  have  some  knowledge  regarding 
the  geological  formations  in  the  vicinity  of  the  source, 
with  special  relation  to  salt  deposits.  If  near  the 
ocean,  or  near  salt  deposits  such  as  are  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  pure  waters  are  likely  to 
contain  relatively  large  quantities  of  chlorine.  It  is 
good  practice  to  obtain  analyses  of  other  waters  in 
that  same  vicinity  in  order  to  get  the  average  chlorine 
content  of  the  region.  On  the  other  hand  if  there  are 
no  known  salt  deposits  in  the  vicinity,  and  if  there  is 
a  possibility  of  surface  washings  entering  the  well  or 
spring,  contamination  is  probable  when  high  chlorine 
is  found.  Urine  of  man  and  other  animals  contains  a 
large  amount  of  chlorine,  and  if  sewage  has  access  to 
a  water  supply  it  can  be  determined  readily  by  the. 
amount  of  chlorine  present  upon  examination.  Taken 
in  connection  with  high  ammonias  and  nitrites  it  is  a 
pretty  certain  index  of  pollution. 

Phosphates. — To  test  for  phosphates  take  a  definite 
amount  of  the  water  and  add  a  little  nitric  acid. 
Evaporate  to  dryness  and  heat  for  two  hours  in  an 


58  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

oven.  Moisten  with  cold  water  and  transfer  to  a 
Nessler  tube.  Add  some  ammonium  molybdate 
solution  and  nitric  acid  and  after  standing  a  few 
minutes  compare  with  a  standard  solution  of  phos- 
phate treated  with  the  ammonium  molybdate  and 
nitric  acid  solutions. 

Like  chlorine,  phosphates  indicate  pollution  when 
found  in  waters,  as  excretions  of  all  animals  contain 
large  amounts  of  phosphates.  In  certain  localities 
known  to  contain  beds  of  phosphate,  they  may  be 
present  and  bear  no  sanitary  significance,  but  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  a  water  containing  appreciable 
amounts  of  phosphates  should  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion. 

Organic  Matter. — The  presence  of  organic  matter  in 
water  may  be  tested  for  and  reported  in  either  of  two 
ways:  (i)  by  a  chemical  test  using  potassium  per- 
manganate and  oxalic  acid,  when  the  results  are 
reported  as  oxygen  required,  or  (2)  by  heating  the 
weighed  residue  obtained  by  evaporating  a  definite 
quantity  of  the  water  to  dryness,  raising  the  temper- 
ture  to  a  dull  red  heat,  and  after  cooling  again  weigh- 
ing, loss  of  weight  being  the  amount  of  organic  and 
volatile  matter  present  in  the  water. 

The  significance  of  the  presence  of  organic  matter 
in  any  quantity  in  a  potable  water,  is  not  so  much  the 
actual  amount  present,  for  this  is  usually  quite  small 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  59 

in  a  pure  water,  but  organic  matter  is  necessary  as 
food  for  bacteria,  and  the  more  there  is  present  in  any 
water  the  more  food,  and  consequently  the  greater 
the  number  of  organisms  that  will  be  found  upon 
examination.  A  water  may  be  rich  in  organic  matter 
and  contain  no  bacteria,  but  if  by  any  means  bacteria 
gain  access  to  it  they  will  multiply  very  rapidly  owing 
to  the  large  amount  of  food  material,  provided 
other  conditions  for  their  development  are  favor- 
able. 

Many  surface  waters  contain  large  amounts  of 
organic  matter,  such  as  the  Dismal  Swamp  in  Virginia, 
but  the  absence  of  any  polluting  sources  makes  them 
safe  to  use.  Such  waters  are  usually  dark  in  color,  and 
not  at  all  inviting  to  the  senses. 

Hardness. — Hardness  is  the  name  given  to  a  con- 
dition produced  by  the  amount  of  sulphates,  chlorides, 
and  carbonates  of  calcium,  or  lime,  and  magnesium 
which  are  present  in  a  water.  Hardness  is  spoken  of 
as  temporary  and  permanent.  The  temporary  hard- 
ness is  that  which  can  be  eliminated  by  boiling,  and 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  carbonates  and  bi- 
carbonates  of  the  elements  mentioned  above.  When 
water  containing  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  of  these 
elements  is  boiled  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  which  holds 
these  salts  in  solution  is  driven  off  and  the  insoluble 
carbonates  are  deposited  upon  the  sides  and  bottom 


6o  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

of  the  vessel.  This  is  the  source  of  the  scale  so  often 
seen  in  vessels  used  repeatedly  for  boiling  water. 

The  sulphates  and  chlorides  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium cannot  be  precipitated  by  boiling,  and  they 
constitute  the  permanent  hardness.  These  chemical 
salts  are  spoken  of  as  incrustants  when  used  in  con- 
nection with  boiler-feed  waters,  and  when  present  in 
even  moderate  amounts  cause  bad  effects  upon  the 
boilers. 

An  objection  is  frequently  raised  against  the  use  of 
hard  waters  for  drinking  purposes,  and  the  argument 
is  advanced  that  too  much  lime  will  be  taken  into  the 
system  by  the  continued  use  of  such  waters.  Col- 
lectively speaking  the  amount  of  lime  present  in  a 
gallon  of  very  hard  water  will  not  amount  to  more  than 
a  few  grains,  and  as  only  a  glassful  or  two  of  water 
is  consumed  at  one  time,  and  n'ot  more  than  half  a 
gallon  is  used  in  a  day,  the  argument  against  such  a 
water  falls  flat.  It  would  be  necessary  to  drink 
gallons  of  such  water  at  a  time  in  order  to  get  enough 
lime  to  have  any  effect  upon  the  system. 

The  taste  is  imparted  to  most  waters  by  the  mineral 
matter  which  is  held  in  solution,  hence  the  flat,  insipid 
taste  of  distilled  water.  After  a  person  becomes  ac- 
customed to  the  taste  of  a  particular  water  another 
water  does  not  appeal  to  him  and  does  not  satisfy 
his  thirst  to  so  great  an  extent.     After  having  been 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  6 1 

accustomed  to  a  moderately  hard  water  a  soft 
water  is  very  flat  and  tastes  more  like  distilled  or 
rain  water. 

Total  Solids. — The  determination  of  total  solids  is 
made  by  evaporating  a  definite  quantity  of  water  to 
dryness  in  a  weighed  platinum  dish  and  again  weigh- 
ing. The  increase  in  weight  is  the  amount  of  chemical 
salts  that  was  in  solution  in  the  water  and  which  was 
precipitated  by  evaporation. 

For  sanitary  purposes  the  mere  determination  of 
total  solids  is  sufficient,  but  fbr  a  complete  chemical 
analysis  this  residue  must  be  examined  further  to 
determine  its  composition.  The  medicinal  properties 
of  waters  depend  upon  the  various  chemicals  in  solu- 
tion, and  these  must  be  known  in  order  to  make 
intelligent  use  of  their  therapeutic  agents.  Some 
waters  being  highly  mineralized  have  a  well-known 
and  decided  therapeutic  action  when  taken  into  the 
system.  In  potable  waters  for  domestic  use  the 
amount  of  mineral  matter  present  is  so  small  that  no 
therapeutic  action  is  exerted  unless  fortified  by  the 
addition  of  chemicals.  When  waters  are  sophisticated 
by  such  means  they  cease  to  be  natural  waters  and 
must  be  classed  with  the  artificial.  The  presence  of 
mineral  matters  in  small  amount  in  solution  renders 
them  capable  of  being  absorbed  by  the  system  and 
used  in  the  building  and  repair  of  the  body  tissues. 


62  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

The  same  salts  are  taken  in  much  larger  quantities  in 
our  solid  food,  and  most  of  the  mineral  matter  used  in 
the  upkeep  of  our  bodies  is  obtained  in  this  manner. 
So  the  principal  function  of  a  pure  potable  water  is 
to  quench  thirst  and  help  in  keeping  the  excretory- 
organs,  as  the  skin,  kidneys,  and  bowels,  in  good  work- 
ing condition. 


CHAPTER  IX 
BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION 

The  bacteriological  examination  of  a  water  is  con- 
ceded by  many  to  be  the  most  important  of  any  of  the 
methods  now  in  use.  Especially  is  this  so  when 
considering  underground  waters  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. It  is  taken  for  granted  that  no  business 
organization  would  embark  in  the  water  trade  until 
they  had  a  source  of  supply  above  criticism.  Then, 
the  surroundings  being  constant,  the  chemical  analysis 
from  the  same  source  would  not  vary  beyond  the 
allowable  limits  and  only  the  bacteriological  exami- 
nation would  show  daily  changes. 

Each  step  in  the  manipulation  of  the  water  after 
leaving  the  source  until  it  is  placed  in  the  container 
in  which  it  reaches  the  consumer  must  be  carefully 
guarded  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  imdesirable 
bacteria. 

The  bacteriological  examination  of  a  water  is  usually 
undertaken  for  two  reasons,  (i)  to  ascertain  the 
average  number  of  bacteria  in  a  given  quantity  of 
water,  usually  one  cubic  centimetre,  or  about  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful;  (2)  to  determine  the  presence  or 

63 


64  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

absence  of  contaminating  bacteria.  The  complete 
examination,  that  is,  the  isolation  and  identification 
of  each  organism  found,  is  seldom  made  unless  the 
examiner  is  interested  in  the  purely  scientific  side 
of  the  question. 

It  is  also  impossible  to  determine  all  the  bacteria 
present  in  a  water.  Some  will  not  grow  upon  the 
media  used,  others  will  not  grow  in  the  presence  of 
air,  and  still  others  require  different  conditions  of 
light  and  temperature  from  those  used  in  routine 
bacteriological  work.  Thus  the  number  of  bacteria 
as  reported  in  a  sample  of  water  is  only  a  fraction  of 
the  number  really  present.  However,  as  all  samples 
are,  or  should  be,  reported  upon  similar  methods  of 
examination,  the  results  are  comparable  even  though 
the  total  number  present  in  all  samples  is  not  de- 
termined. 

Briefly,  the  method  of  examination  of  a  given  sample 
of  water  is  as  follows:  The  sample  is  collected  in  a 
clean,  sterile  bottle  with  a  tight-fitting  glass  stopper, 
and  of  about  four  ounces  capacity,  and  transferred 
to  the  laboratory  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  If 
the  time  elapsing  between  collection  and  examination 
exceeds  an  hour  the  sample  should  be  packed  in  ice. 
Sterile  glass  plates  known  as  Petri  plates  with  loosely 
fitting  glass  covers,  also  sterile,  are  labeled  to  corre- 
spond to  the  number  of  the  sample.     After  thor- 


BACTERIOLOGICAL      EXAMINATION  65 

oughly  shaking  the  bottle  to  secure  an  intimate 
mixture  of  the  contents,  one  cubic  centimetre  is 
withdrawn  by  means  of  a  sterile  pipette  and  placed 
in  a  Petri  dish.  To  another  dish  one-tenth  of  a 
cubic  centimetre  is  added,  to  another  one-hundredth 
of  a  cubic  centimetre,  etc.,  depending  upon  how  high 
a  dilution  is  required.  Sterile  distilled  water  is  used 
for  diluting  purposes.  Into  these  plates  is  then 
poured  some  warm,  sterile,  melted  gelatine  which 
is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water  and  set  aside 
to  cool.  After  the  gelatine  film  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  plate  has  become  cold  and  solidified,  the  plates 
are  placed  in  a  moist  dark  chamber,  the  temperature 
of  which  is  maintained  at  or  near  20°  C.  They 
remain  here  for  48  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  time 
any  bacteria  which  may  have  been  present  in  the 
water  will  have  grown  and  multiplied  until  the 
masses  of  bacteria  can  be  seen  with  the  aid  of  a 
low-power  lens,  and  often  with  the  unaided  eye.  The 
number  of  masses,  or  colonies  of  bacteria,  as  they  are 
called,  are  then  counted,  the  number  found  on  the 
diluted  plates  being  multiplied  by  ten  or  one  hundred 
or  more  as  the  case  may  be,  and  the  average  taken. 
This  average  is  given  as  the  number  of  bacteria  in  a 
cubic  centimetre  of  the  water.  For  instance,  if  the 
sample  of  water  showed  on  the  plate  containing  one 
cubic  centimetre  of  the  water  700  colonies,  on  the  plate 
5 


66  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

containing  one-tenth  cubic  centimetre  80  colonies,  and 
on  the  plate  containing  one-hundredth  cubic  centi- 
metre 9  colonies,  the  average  of  these  three  plates 
after  the  proper  multiplications  had  been  made  would 
be  800.  We  would,  therefore,  say  that  this  particular 
sample  of  water  contained  800  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimetre. 

At  the  time  of  preparing  the  Petri  plates  with 
gelatine,  varying  quantities  of  the  water,  usually  ten, 
one,  and  one-tenth  cubic  centimetres,  are  added  to 
sterile  solutions  containing  some  form  of  sugar, 
dextrose  or  lactose,  in  specially  constructed  tubes. 
This  is  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  presence  or 
absence  of  bacteria  which  produce  gas  in  sugar 
solutions.  If  this  type  of  bacteria  is  present  in  the 
water  it  will  break  down  the  sugar  into  carbon  dioxide, 
a  gas,  and  alcohol.  The  gas  will  collect  in  the  closed 
arm  of  the  tube,  and  its  nature  can  be  determined  by 
analysis.  Various  liquids  containing  the  sugar  in 
solution  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  such  as  peptone 
water,  beef  broth,  ox  bile,  liver  broth,  etc.,  depending 
upon  the  character  of  the  water  to  be  examined. 
For  commercial  waters  the  ox  bile  and  beef  broth 
to  which  some  lactose  has  been  added  are  about  the 
best.  Both  solutions  are  rendered  sterile  by  heating. 
After  being  inoculated  with  the  water  under  exami- 
nation these  tubes  are  placed  in  an  incubator  at  a 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  67 

temperature  of  37°  C.  to  38°  C.  for  48  hours.  If 
no  gas  production  has  taken  place  at  the  end  of 
this  time  the  test  is  considered  negative.  If,  how- 
ever, there  is  gas  production  the  examination  is 
carried  further  in  order  to  isolate  and  identify  the 
organism  causing  the  gas  formation. 

To  do  this,  some  of  the  sediment  in  the  tube  showing 
gas  is  inoculated  into  sterile  tubes  of  agar-agar  to  which 
lactose  and  a  small  amount  of  sterile  Htmus  solution 
have  been  added.  This  litmus  turns  blue  in  an  alkaUne 
medium  and  red  in  an  acid  medium.  The  agar-agar 
should  be  slightly  alkaline  when  inoculated.  After 
incubating  at  37°  C.  for  24  hours,  numerous  colonies 
of  bacteria  will  be  found  growing  on  the  plate,  and 
among  them  will  be  found  some  which  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  red  area  in  the  blue  field;  other  colonies 
will  have  no  effect  upon  the  medium.  The  red 
colonies  are  usually  the  cause  of  the  gas  production 
in  the  original  tube.  Some  of  these  red  colonies  are 
transferred  to  tubes  of  the  sugar  solution  originally 
used  and  again  tested  for  gas  production,  and  if  gas 
is  produced  it  is  proof  that  the  organism  causing  the 
original  gas  production  has  been  isolated. 

At  the  same  time  that  gelatine  plates  are  made  and 
tubes  inoculated  for  gas  production  some  of  the  water 
is  placed  in  plates  and  agar-agar  added  in  place  of 
gelatine.    As  soon  as  cool  these  plates  are  placed  in 


68  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

the  incubator  at  37°  to  38°  C.  for  24  hours,  and 
at  the  end  of  this  time  they  are  examined  for  the 
presence  of  colonies.  Bacteria  which  develop  at 
this  temperature,  which  is  about  the  temperature  of 
the  human  body,  are  looked  upon  with  suspicion. 
Unpolluted  water  will  show  very  few  bacteria  capable 
of  development  at  this  temperature,  the  species  which 
grow  at  20°  C.  being  able  to  grow  feebly  or  not  at  all 
at  the  higher  temperature.  Bacteria  which  grow 
best  at  the  higher  temperature  rapidly  die  out  when 
added  to  pure  water,  unless  its  temperature  is  raised 
and  there  is  organic  matter  present  to  serve  them  as 
food.  So  if  a  given  water  upon  examination  shows 
many  bacteria  capable  of  developing  at  37°  C.  it 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  especially  if 
among  these  bacteria  are  found  some  that  produce 
gas. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  in  a  work  of  this  sort  to 
enter  into  a  description  of  the  preparation  and  use 
of  the  various  culture  media  employed  in  the  ex- 
amination of  water,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  any 
standard  text-book  upon  the  subject  where  this 
information  may  be  found  in  detail.  A  discussion 
of  the  results  obtained  is  proper  and  necessary  to  the 
understanding  of  an  analysis,  especially  from  a  sani- 
tary point  of  view. 

The   bacteriological    examination    of    water    is    a 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  69 

delicate  operation  in  that  so  many  factors  must  be 
considered,  many  of  which  are  negligible  in  a  chemical 
analysis  but  are  of  the  utmost  importance  from  the 
bacteriological  point  of  view.  Bacteria  multiply  very 
rapidly,  only  a  half  hour  being  necessary  for  the 
division  of  a  single  organism  into  two.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the  total  number  of  bacteria  present  in  a  given 
sample  of  water  will  have  very  little  significance  from 
a  sanitary  standpoint  unless  the  time  elapsing  be- 
tween collection  and  examination  is  known.  All 
natural  waters  contain  food  for  bacteria  in  the  form 
of  larger  or  smaller  amounts  of  organic  matter  and 
if  there  is  much  delay  in  the  examination  of  a  water 
after  collection  the  bacteria  will  markedly  increase. 
A  water  showing  only  a  few  bacteria  at  the  time  of 
collection  will  show  thousands  or  perhaps  millions  if 
examined  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  days.  The  fol- 
lowing table  taken  from  Mason  (21)  will  serve  to 
illustrate  this  point: 


Immediate 

15.9°  c. 

48  bacteria 

per  cc. 

After  2  hours 

20.6°  c. 

125 

u 

a       it 

After  I  day 

21.0°  c. 

38,000 

n 

ti       11 

After  2  days 

20.5°  c. 

125,000 

ti 

cc      u 

After  3  days 

22.3°  c. 

590,000 

cc 

cc       iC 

The  above  statements  should  be  modified  by  saying 
that  the  temperature  at  which  the  sample  was  held, 


70  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

also  the  absence  or  presence  of  light,  has  a  marked 
influence.  Water  kept  in  the  dark  at  a  warm  temper- 
ature will  show  a  marked  increase  in  its  bacterial 
content  as  against  one  kept  at  a  low  temperature 
and  in  the  Hght.  Light  is  rapidly  fatal  to  bacteria, 
and  sunlight  is  one  of  our  best  disinfectants.  Bacteria 
multiply  rapidly  up  to  a  temperature  of  37°  C,  and 
some  even  higher,  but  temperatures  over  45°  C. 
inhibit  their  development  and  if  long-continued  are 
fatal.  Likewise  the  nearer  the  temperature  ap- 
proaches freezing,  the  less  growth  there  is,  but  a  low 
temperature  can  be  withstood  for  a  longer  period 
than  can  a  high  one.  Bacteria  will  live  in  ice  for 
several  weeks,  but  at  the  end  of  six  months  ice  is 
sterile,  even  when  cut  from  contaminated  fields. 
So  we  see  that  the  factors  of  light  and  temperature 
exert  a  marked  effect  upon  the  bacterial  content  of 
waters. 

Another  condition  easy  of  demonstration  in  the 
laboratory  is  that  waters  kept  in  small  quantities 
show  an  increase  of  bacteria  over  those  kept  in  larger 
quantities.  Water  placed  in  a  two-ounce  bottle  and 
in  a  five-gallon  bottle  and  kept  under  similar  con- 
ditions will  show  a  greater  increase  of  bacteria  in 
the  smaller  container.  This  furnishes  one  argument 
against  keeping  water  bottled  for  a  great  length  of 
time  before  being  used.    There  is  a  limit  to  this 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  7 1 

multiplication,  however,  for  as  soon  as  the  food 
material  is  exhausted  the  bacteria  will  die,  and  after 
this  time  the  bottle  of  water  will  be  sterile. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  total  number  of  bacteria 
in  themselves  in  a  sample  of  water  has  no  real 
sanitary  value.  The  real  significance  lies  in  the 
kinds  of  bacteria  present. 

In  order  to  determine  the  different  varieties  of 
bacteria  present  in  a  water  a  more  complicated 
procedure  is  necessary.  Many  workers  along  this 
line  have  evolved  methods  for  the  separation  and 
identification  of  various  organisms.  From  a  sanitary 
point  of  view  those  bacteria  which  are  capable  of 
producing  diseased  conditions  when  taken  into  the 
system  are  of  the  most  importance;  and  it  is  toward 
the  isolation  of  such  germs  as  cause  typhoid  fever, 
cholera,  and  dysentery,  and  other  water-borne  dis- 
eases, that  the  greatest  effort  has  been  directed. 

Up  to  within  the  last  few  years  the  germ  causing 
typhoid  fever  had  been  isolated  from  polluted  water  a 
very  few  times,  not  more  than  six  or  eight.  Since  that 
time  methods  and  culture  media  have  been  perfected 
whereby  it  has  been  more  freely  identified.  The 
organism  which  is  most  frequently  found  and  which 
is  taken  as  an  index  of  pollution  is  the  so-called 
colon  bacillus,  or  rather  colon  group  of  bacteria. 
Jackson  (17)  has  shown  that  there  are  several  mem- 


72  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

bers  of  this  group  which  have  a  common  origin  in 
that  they  are  found  in  the  intestinal  contents  of 
warm-blooded  animals.  The  germ  causing  typhoid 
fever  is  also  found  in  the  intestinal  discharges  of 
persons  suffering  from  the  disease.  Having  a  com- 
mon habitat,  both  germs  are  frequently  present  in 
contaminating  material  when  of  human  origin. 

As  previously  stated,  the  colon  group  of  bacteria 
is  easily  identified  in  water  examinations,  and  when 
present  suggests  the  possibiHty  of  the  presence  of 
typhoid,  cholera,  or  dysentery  germs,  as  all  three  are 
foimd  in  the  intestinal  discharges  of  persons  suffering 
with  these  diseases.  Unfortunately,  no  method  has 
yet  been  devised  whereby  the  colon  bacillus  of 
human  origin  can  be  differentiated  from  that  of 
other  animals.  If  such  was  the  case  it  would  be  an 
easy  matter  to  know  whether  the  pollution  of  a 
given  water  supply  was  of  a  dangerous  or  harmless 
nature.  For  while  the  presence  of  colon  bacilH  from 
whatever  source  is  objectionable  from  an  aesthetic 
point  of  view,  their  significance  as  indicating  disease 
would  be  greatly  diminished  if  it  could  be  shown  that 
their  original  source  was  from  birds  or  other  animals 
not  subject  to  diseases  transmissible  to  man. 

Colon  bacilli  are  found  almost  everywhere:  in  the 
soil,  in  the  air,  especially  in  the  dust  of  roadways  and 
streets;  they  are  especially  abundant  in  sewage,  in 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  73 

cultivated  fields — in  fact,  wherever  warm-blooded 
animals  are  found  there  is  the  colon  bacillus  in 
greater  or  less  numbers.  It  is  capable  of  multiplica- 
tion outside  of  the  intestine,  therefore  its  presence 
in  a  water  in  small  numbers  may  have  no  great 
sanitary  significance;  for  it  may  have  been  isolated 
from  its  normal  environment  for  a  long  time  before 
reaching  a  water  supply,  in  the  meantime  undergoing 
marked  changes  as  far  as  bacterial  associates  are 
concerned.  It  may  have  lost  all  connection  with 
the  material  in  which  it  left  the  body,  and  the  rapid 
multiplication  which  any  germ  undergoes  under 
similar  conditions  may  have  so  altered  its  character 
and  associates  as  to  make  it  a  perfectly  harmless  type 
when  found  in  a  water.  As  it  is  a  much  hardier  germ 
than  the  typhoid  bacillus,  it  will  easily  outlive  its 
pathogenic  associate  and  more  readily  adapt  itself 
to  new  surroundings.  However,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to 
look  upon  all  waters  with  suspicion  which  show  the 
presence  of  the  colon  bacillus  in  amoimts  of  ten  cubic 
centimetres  or  less  in  the  majority  of  examinations. 
Some  authorities  maintain  that  it  should  never  be 
found  in  any  amount  of  water  that  is  pure,  while 
others  are  more  liberal  in  their  view  and  do  not 
condemn  a  water  showing  this  germ  occasionally 
present  in  ten  cubic-centimetre  amounts  or  more. 
More  leniency  is  shown  in  dealing  with  public  water 


74  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

supplies  than  with  commercial  mineral  waters,  and 
rightly  so;  for  in  most  instances  a  public  supply  must 
be  taken  from  a  river  or  lake  whose  watershed  is 
subject  to  contamination  which  is  beyond  the  control 
of  the  community  supplied,  while  commercial  waters 
are,  or  should  be,  so  safeguarded  as  to  preclude  the 
possibility  of  pollution  reaching  even  the  vicinity  of 
the  source  from  which  the  supply  is  drawn.  There- 
fore, the  colon  bacillus  should  never  be  found  in  such 
waters  at  their  source.  If  found  in  the  bottled 
product  it  is  evidence  that  contamination  has  crept 
in  at  some  point  in  the  handling.  Examination  of  a 
sample  from  the  source  will  show  whether  it  is  pol- 
luted or  not;  and  if  found  pure,  the  course  of  the 
water  must  be  traced  through  the  various  steps  in 
the  handling. 

As  a  good  potable  water  offers  rather  an  uncon- 
genial environment  for  the  colon  bacillus,  it  will 
not  live  very  long  amid  such  surroundings.  The 
writer  has  found  in  his  own  laboratory  that  in  bot- 
tled waters  it  is  impossible  to  recover  this  organism 
after  35  days,  even  when  added  as  a  vigorous  cul- 
ture and  in  comparatively  large  quantities  to  the 
bottled  product.  Here  again  the  elements  of  temper- 
ature and  light  enter  largely  into  the  calculations. 
The  time  here  given  was  for  water  kept  in  five-pint 
bottles  in  diffuse   light  and  at  room   temperature 


BACTERIOLOGICAL   EXAMINATION  75 

18°  to  22°  C.  Water  kept  cold  and  in  the  dark 
will  show  colon  bacilli  for  a  greater  length  of  time. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  water  in  its  passage  through 
the  soil  collects  large  numbers  of  bacteria  of  all  kinds, 
and  while  it  loses  many  of  them  in  its  further  course, 
some  of  them  find  their  way  to  the  surface  with  the 
water  as  it  emerges  as  a  spring.  These  bacteria  are 
accustomed  to  living  amid  cool  surroundings,  and 
therefore  readily  adapt  themselves  to  an  aquatic 
life.  Such  organisms  are  what  some  writers  term 
"normal  water  bacteria,"  but  as  the  kinds  of  bacteria 
in  different  waters  will  vary  as  the  composition  of  the 
soil  and  subsoil  varies,  it  is  seen  that  each  water 
supply,  to  a  large  extent,  must  have  its  own  peculiar 
bacterial  flora.  When  the  surroundings  are  pro- 
tected from  pollution  the  dangers  from  pathogenic 
germs  are  eliminated  and  the  "normal  bacteria''  for 
that  particular  location  will  be  of  a  harmless  type. 

The  bacteria  found  in  a  water  and  which  have  been 
derived  from  an  uncontaminated  soil  will  grow  best 
at  the  temperature  of  that  water.  Polluting  bacteria, 
especially  those  of  a  disease-producing  type,  and  the 
colon  bacillus  grow  best  at  the  body  temperature, 
38°  C,  and  will  grow  feebly  or  not  at  all  at  the  normal 
temperature  of  the  water  in  which  they  were  found. 
If,  upon  examination  of  a  water,  a  number  of  colonies 
of  bacteria  are  found  growing  at  a  temperature  of 


76  UNDERGROUND    WATERS 

20°  to  22°  C.  and  few  or  none  growing  at  a  temper- 
ature of  38°  C,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  source 
is  free  from  pollution.  If  more  bacteria  are  found 
growing  at  38°  than  at  20°  C.  it  is  evidence  that 
contaminating  organisms  are  finding  their  way  into 
the  water  supply,  and  that  being  the  case,  there  is 
danger  of  disease-producing  bacteria  being  present. 
Therefore,  the  relative  number  of  bacteria  growing 
at  body  and  room  temperature  is  a  fair  index  of  the 
sanitary  condition  of  a  water  supply. 

Other  bacteria  aside  from  the  colon  group  are 
capable  of  producing  gas  in  the  various  sugar  media, 
and  it  is  not  enough  to  base  an  opinion  upon  the 
quahty  of  a  water  alone  from  the  point  of  gas  pro- 
duction. "When  gas  is  formed  in  lactose  bile  solution 
it  has  been  determined  that  the  colon  bacillus  is  the 
cause  in  over  95  per  cent  of  the  cases.  When  plain 
lactose  broth  is  used  the  number  of  times  this  organ- 
ism is  found  as  the  cause  of  gas  production  varies 
from  50  per  cent  to  80  per  cent.  Solutions  con- 
taining dextrose  show  gas  production  by  many  other 
organisms  than  the  colon  bacillus  and  is  not  so 
reHable  an  index  of  pollution  as  are  lactose  solutions. 
Dextrose  Hver  broth  will  give  all  gas  producers 
present,  both  attenuated  and  vigorous,  and  the 
examination  must  be  carried  to  the  point  of  verifica- 
tion when  this  medium  is  used. 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  77 

For  purposes  of  identification  of  the  colon  group  of 
bacteria  it  is  necessary  to  plant  it  in  various  culture 
media  and  study  its  reaction.  To  be  classed  as 
belonging  to  the  colon  group  of  organisms,  a  germ 
should  give  the  following  reactions: 

A  uniform  turbidity  in  beef  broth. 

A  moderate,  white,  moist  growth  on  agar  slants. 

Should  not  liquefy  gelatine. 

Should  coagulate  and  acidify  milk. 

Should  produce  gas  in  dextrose  and  lactose  solu- 
tions, also  in  lactose  bile;  gas  production  in  saccharose 
variable. 

Should  produce  indol  and  nitrites. 

Should  decolorize  when  treated  with  Gram  stain, 
and  upon  measurement,  should  be  from  two  to  four 
microns  long,  and  .4  to  .7  micron  broad. 


CHAPTER  X 

MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION 

The  microscopical  examination  of  a  water  is  in 
itself  a  large  subject  and  can  only  be  touched  upon 
in  a  work  of  this  character.  Literally  speaking,  the 
microscopical  examination  should  include  everything 
not  visible  to  the  unaided  eye;  but  as  the  science 
of  water  analysis  has  advanced,  the  bacteriological 
examination  has  come  to  occupy  a  place  of  first 
importance  in  a  field  distinctively  its  own,  and  the 
microscopical  examination  deals  with  minute  plants 
and  animals  found  in  some  waters.  The  bacterio- 
logical examination  has  to  do  with  the  safety  of  a 
water  from  a  disease-producing  standpoint;  the 
microscopical  examination  deals  more  directly  with 
the  aesthetic  quaHties,  such  as  taste,  odor,  turbidity, 
etc. 

Whipple  (34)  says:  "By  far  the  most  important 
service  that  the  microscopical  examination  renders 
is  that  of  explaining  the  cause  of  taste  and  odor 
of  a  water  and  of  its  color,  turbidity,  and  sediment. 
Several  of  the  microscopical  organisms  give  rise  to 
objectionable  odors  in  water,  and,  when  sufficiently 

78 


MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  79 

abundant,  have  a  marked  influence  upon  its  color. 
They  also  make  the  water  turbid  and  cause  unsightly 
scums  and  sediments  to  form.  Upon  all  such  matters 
related  to  the  aesthetic  qualities  of  a  water  the  micro- 
scopical examination  is  almost  the  only  means  of 
obtaining  reliable  information." 

Plankton  is  the  general  name  given  to  the  micro- 
scopical aggregation  which  is  investigated  in  any 
given  sample  of  water.  The  term  as  used  embraces 
plants  and  animals  that  float  about  in  the  free  state, 
also  larvae,  egg  masses,  etc.,  of  higher  animals.  It 
includes  diatoms,  algae,  fungi,  protozoa,  etc. 

According  to  Whipple  (34)  "ground  water  col- 
lected directly  from  the  soil  before  it  has  had  an 
opportunity  to  stand  in  pipes  or  be  exposed  to  the 
light  is  almost  invariably  free  from  microscopic 
organisms.  ...  It  is  only  as  a  ground  water  becomes 
a  surface  water  that  the  microscopic  organisms 
develop." 

Examinations  made  by  the  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Health,  and  quoted  by  Whipple  (34)  show 
that  these  minute  organisms  are  rarely  found  in 
spring  waters.  Certain  types  are  found  in  some 
wells,  especially  in  the  tubes  of  driven  wells,  and  in 
water  containing  quantities  of  iron  and  organic 
matter,  but  with  a  less  amount  of  oxygen  than 
normal. 


8o  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

Surface  water  is  usually  rich  in  microscopic  life 
which  at  times  becomes  very  troublesome  in  reservoirs, 
causing  disagreeable  odors  and  tastes.  The  slimy 
growth  and  scum  so  often  seen  on  the  surface  of 
comparatively  still  bodies  of  water  are  due  to  the 
presence  and  growth  of  various  microscopic  forms. 
They  are  found  at  times  on  the  interior  of  service 
pipes  and  may  become  so  numerous  as  to  interfere 
seriously  with  the  water  supply  by  occluding  the 
passage-way  in  the  pipes. 

The  persistence  of  microscopic  organisms  in  a  given 
water  supply  is  dependent  upon  three  things:  temper- 
ature, Hght,  and  food  material.  As  a  general  rule,  a 
warm  temperature,  70°  to  90°  F.,  plenty  of  light,  and 
a  water  rich  in  nitrogenous  organic  matter  are  most 
favorable  conditions  for  the  development  of  micro- 
scopic organisms.  The  Hght  factor  here  is  just 
opposite  to  that  most  favorable  for  bacterial  develop- 
ment, as  we  have  seen  that  light  is  inhibitory  in  its 
action  on  bacteria.  The  factors  making  for  the 
development  of  microscopic  organisms  is  evidenced 
by  the  abundant  scum  formation  seen  on  the  surface 
of  stagnant  ponds  and  other  bodies  of  water  during 
the  warm  summer  weather.  There  are  exceptions 
to  this,  however,  and  some  forms  of  microscopic 
plant  life  grow  only  in  cold  waters  in  dark  places, 
such  as  service  pipes,  covered  reservoirs,  etc.    Some 


MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  8 1 

forms  require  the  presence  of  minerals,  such  as  iron 
or  manganese,  in  order  to  thrive. 

In  order  to  purify  a  water  of  these  objectionable 
elements,  it  is  necessary  either  to  filter  it  or  add 
a  disinfectant,  as  copper  sulphate.  From  one  to 
two  parts  of  copper  sulphate  in  one  million  parts  of 
water  is  sufficient  to  destroy  most  forms  of  algae,  and 
such  minute  quantities  have  no  effect  when  taken 
into  the  system.  A  higher  concentration  (i :  400,000) 
is  rapidly  fatal  to  bacteria  in  water,  as  a  solution  of 
this  strength  will  kill  typhoid  germs  in  24  hours 
Jordan  (18). 


APPENDIX 
USEFUL  RULES  AND  TABLES 

USEFUL  RULES 

To  find  the  capacity  in  gallons  of  a  cylinder  of  given 
dimensions,  square  the  diameter,  multiply  by  the  length, 
and  by  0.0034  when  dimensions  are  in  inches;  and  by 
5.875  when  the  dimensions  are  in  feet. 

To  find  the  weight  of  water  in  a  given  cylinder,  multiply 
the  capacity  in  cubic  feet  by  62.25,  or  gallons  by  8.33. 

To  find  the  number  of  barrels  of  31.5  gallons,  or  num- 
ber of  gallons  in  tanks  or  cisterns,  multiply  the  square 
of  the  diameter  by  depth  in  feet;  for  barrels,  multiply 
by  373  and  divide  by  2,000;  for  gallons,  multiply  by  47 
and  divide  by  8. 

To  find  capacity  in  gallons  of  rectangular  tanks,  de- 
termine the  number  of  cubic  feet  and  divide  by  7.4805,     , 

Under  a  pressure  of  15  pounds  per  square  inch  water 
can  be  compressed  0.00004663  of  its  volume. 

A  column  of  water  one  foot  high  exerts  a  pressure  of 
.433  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  62.352  pounds  per  square 
foot. 

A  flow  of  one  cubic  foot  per  second  equals  448.31  gallons 
per  minute;  646,317  gallons  per  24  hours;  or  3741.3  pounds 
of  water  per  minute. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity 
four  times. 

83 


84  UNDERGROUND    WATERS 

To  measure  the  flow  of  an  open  stream,  measure  the 
depth  of  the  water  at  from  6  to  12  points  across  the 
stream  at  equal  distances  between.  Add  all  the  depths 
in  feet  together  and  divide  by  the  number  of  measure- 
ments: this  will  be  the  average  depth  of  the  stream, 
which,  multiplied  by  its  width,  will  give  its  area  or  cross- 
section.  Multiply  this  by  the  velocity  of  the  stream 
in  feet  per  minute,  and  the  result  will  be  the  discharge 
in  cubic  feet  per  minute  of  the  stream. 

The  velocity  of  the  stream  can  be  found  by  laying  off 
100  feet  of  the  bank  and  throwing  a  float  into  the  middle, 
noting  the  time  taken  in  passing  over  the  100  feet.  Do 
this  a  number  of  times  and  take  the  average;  then,  dividing 
this  distance  by  the  time  gives  the  velocity  at  the  surface. 
As  the  top  of  the  stream  flows  faster  than  the  bottom  or 
sides — the  average  velocity  being  about  83  per  cent 
of  the  surface  velocity  at  the  middle — it  is  convenient 
to  measure  a  distance  of  120  feet  for  the  float  and  reckon 
it  as  100  (Kent). 

WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES 

One  gallon  of  water  weighs  8.331  pounds. 

One  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.32  pounds  at  39°  F. 

267.38  gallons  of  water  weigh  a  ton. 

35.746  cubic  feet  of  water  weigh  a  ton. 

One  gallon  of  water  measures  231  cubic  inches. 

One  cubic  foot  of  water  is  equal  to  7.4805  gallons. 

One  cubic  centimetre  (c.c.)  =  .033  oz. 

One  ounce  (oz.)  =  29.574  c.c. 

One  c.c.  =  16  drops  (approximately). 

One  litre  (L)  =  1.056  qts. 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  TABLES  85 

One  quart  =  .946  L. 
One  gallon  =  3.785  L. 

One  grain  per  gallon  =1.71  parts  per  hundred  thou- 
sand. 
One  grain  per  gallon  =17.1  parts  per  million. 
One  part  per  hundred  thousand  =  .585  grain  per  gallon. 
One  part  per  hundred  thousand  =  .1  part  per  million. 
One  part  per  million  =  .0585  grain  per  gallon. 
One  part  per  million  =  10  parts  per  hundred  thousand. 


86 


UNDERGROUND    WATERS 


CYLINDRICAL  VESSELS,'  TANKS,   CISTERNS,   ETC. 

Diameter  in  Feet  and  Inches,  Area  in  Square  Feet,  and  U.  S. 
Gallons  Capacity  for  One  Foot  in  Depth. 

I  cubic  foot 

I  gallon  =  231  cubic  inches  = =  0.13368  cubic  feet. 

7-4805 


Diam. 

Area 

Gals. 

Diam. 

Area 

Gals. 

Ft. 

In. 

Sq.  ft. 

I  foot  depth 

Ft. 

In. 

Sq.ft. 

I  foot  depth 

.785 

5.87 

3 

10 

II. 541 

86.33 

I 

.922 

6.89 

3 

II 

12.048 

90.13 

2 

1.069 

8.00 

4 

12.566 

94 

3 

1.227 

9.18 

4 

I 

13.095 

97-96 

4 

1.396 

10.44 

4 

2 

13.635 

102.00 

5 

I    576 

11.79 

4 

3 

14.186 

106.12 

6 

1.767 

13.22 

4 

4 

14.748 

110.32 

7 

1.969 

14.73 

4 

5 

15.321 

114. 61 

8 

2.182 

16.32 

4 

6 

15.90 

118.97 

9 

2.405 

17.99 

4 

7 

16.50 

123.42 

10 

2.640 

19.75 

4 

8 

17.10 

127.95 

II 

2.885 

21.58 

4 

9 

17.72 

132.56 

2 

3-142 

23.50 

4 

10 

18.35 

137.25 

2 

I 

3-409 

25.50 

4 

II 

18.99 

142.02 

2 

2 

3.687 

27.58 

5 

19.63 

146.88 

2 

3 

3.976 

29.74 

5 

I 

20.29 

151.82 

2 

4 

4.276 

31.99 

5 

2 

20.97 

156.83 

2 

5 

4-587 

34.31 

5 

3 

21.65 

161.93 

2 

6 

4.909 

36.72 

5 

4 

22.34 

167.12 

2 

7 

5.241 

39.21 

5 

5 

23.04 

172.38 

2 

8 

5-585 

41.78 

5 

6 

23.76 

177.72 

2 

9 

5.940 

44-43 

5 

7 

24.48 

183-15 

2 

10 

6.305 

47-16 

5 

8 

25.22 

188.66 

2 

II 

6.681 

49-98 

5 

9 

2597 

19425 

3 

7.069 

52.88 

5 

10 

26.73 

199.92 

3 

I 

7.467 

55-86 

5 

II 

27.49 

205.67 

3 

2 

7.876 

58.92 

6 

28.27 

211. 51 

3 

3 

8.296 

62.06 

6 

3 

30.68 

229.50 

3 

4 

8.727 

65.28 

6 

6 

3318 

248.23 

3 

5 

9.168 

68.58 

6 

9 

35-78 

267 . 69 

3 

6 

9.621 

71.97 

7 

38.48 

287.88 

3 

7 

10.085 

75.44 

7 

3 

41.28 

308.81 

3 

8 

10.559 

78.99 

7 

6 

44.18 

330.48 

3 

9 

II    045 

82.62 

7 

9 

47- 17 

352.88 

USEFUL  RULES  AND   TABLES 


87 


CYLINDRICAL  VESSELS,  ETC.  (Cont.) 


Diam. 

Area 

Gals. 

Diam. 

Area 

Gals. 

Ft. 

In. 

Sq.ft. 

I  foot  depth 

Ft. 

In. 

Sq.ft. 

I  foot  depth 

8 

50.27 

376.01 

18 

254-47 

1903.6 

8 

3 

53  46 

399.88 

18 

6 

268 . 80 

2010.8 

8 

6 

56.75 

424.48 

19 

283.53 

2120.9 

8 

9 

60.13 

449 . 82 

19 

6 

298.65 

2234.0 

9 

63.62 

475-89 

20 

314.16 

2350.1 

9 

3 

67.20 

502.70 

20 

6 

330.06 

2469.1 

9 

6 

70.88 

530.24 

21 

346.36 

2591.0 

9 

9 

74.66 

558.51 

21 

6 

363  05 

2715.8 

10 

78-54 

587-52 

22 

380.13 

2843.6 

10 

3 

82.52 

617.26 

22 

6 

397.61 

2974 -3 

10 

6 

86.59 

647 • 74 

23 

415.48 

3108.0 

10 

9 

90.76 

678.95 

23 

6 

433 • 74 

3244.6 

II 

95  03 

710.90 

24 

452.39 

3384-1 

II 

3 

99.40 

743-58 

24 

6 

471-44 

3526.6 

II 

6 

103.87 

776.99 

25 

490.87 

3672.0 

II 

9 

108.43 

811. 14 

25 

6 

510.71 

3820.3 

12 

113. 10 

846.03 

26 

530.93 

3971.6 

12 

3 

117.86 

881.65 

26 

6 

551.55 

4125-9 

12 

6 

122.72 

918.00 

27 

572.56 

4283.0 

12 

9 

127.68 

955  09 

27 

6 

593 • 96 

4443-1 

13 

132.73 

992.91 

28 

615-75 

4606.2 

13 

6 

143.14 

1070.8 

28 

6 

637-94 

4772.1 

14 

153-94 

1151-5 

29 

660.52 

4941.0 

14 

6 

165.13 

1235.3 

29 

6 

683.49 

5112.9 

15 

176.71 

1321.9 

30 

706 . 86 

5287.7 

15 

6 

188.69 

1411.5 

30 

6 

730.62 

5465 -4 

16 

201.06 

1504.1 

31 

754-77 

5646.1 

16 

6 

213.82 

1599-5 

31 

6 

779.31 

5829.7 

17 

226.98 

1697.9 

32 

804.25 

6016.2 

17 

6 

240.53 

1799-3 

32 

6 

829.58 

6205.7 

(Kent*    Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket  Book.) 


88 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS 


CAPACITY  OF  PIPES  OF  VARIOUS  SIZES  IN  CUBIC 
FEET  AND  GALLONS. 


Diam. 

No.  feet 

Diam. 

No.  ft. 

inches 

Cu.  ft. 

Gals. 

for  I  gal. 

inches 

Cu.  ft. 

Gals. 

for  I  gaU 

M 

.0003 

.0025 

392 

9   , 

.4418 

3.305 

.30 

<5 

.0014 

.0102 

98 

9K 

.4922 

3-682 

.271 

M 

.0031 

.0230 

43.66 

10 

•5454 

4.08 

.24 

I 

.0055 

.0408 

24.4 

loyi 

.6013 

4.498 

.22 

iM 

.0085 

.0638 

15.67 

II 

.6600 

4.937 

.202 

iy2 

.0123 

.0918 

10.80 

12 

.7854 

5.875 

.17 

"^H 

.0167 

.1249 

8 

13 

.9218 

6.895 

.144 

2 

.0218 

.1632 

6.10 

14 

1.069 

7.997 

.125 

2H 

.0276 

.2066 

4.83 

15 

1.227 

9.180 

.108 

2-/2 

.0341 

.2550 

392 

16 

1.396 

10.44 

.095 

2M 

.0412 

.3085 

3.24 

17 

1.576 

11.79 

.084 

3   , 

.0491 

.3672 

2.72 

18 

1.768 

13.22 

.075 

3K 

.0668 

.4998 

2 

20 

2.182 

16.32 

.061 

4   , 

.0873 

.6528 

1.50 

22 

2.640 

19.75 

.05 

4>^ 

.1104 

.8263 

1. 21 

24 

3.142 

23.50 

.042 

5 

.1364 

1.02 

.98 

26 

3.687 

27.58 

.036 

5>^ 

.1650 

1.234 

.81 

28 

4.276 

31.99 

.031 

6 

.1963 

1.469 

.68 

30 

4.909 

36.72 

.027 

6>^ 

.2304 

1.724 

.58 

36 

7.069 

52.88 

.018 

7  ^ 

.2673 

1.999 

.50 

42 

9.621 

71.97 

.013 

7K 

.3068 

2.295 

.43 

48 

12.566 

94.00 

.0106 

8 

•3491 

2. 611 

.38 

8K 

.3941 

2.948 

.339 

— 

USEFUL  RULES   AND   TABLES 


89 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  TEMPERATURES, 
FAHRENHEIT  TO  CENTIGRADE. 


F 

c 

F 

c 

F 

c 

F 

c 

F 

c 

F 

141 

c 

60.6 

F 

177 

C 

-40 

-40 

-3 

-19.4 

33 

+0.6 

69 

20.6 

105 

40.6 

80.6 

-39 

-39.4 

—  2 

-18.9 

34 

I.I 

70 

21. 1 

106 

41. 1 

142 

61. 1 

178 

81. 1 

-38 

-38.^ 

—  I 

-18.3 

35 

1-7 

71 

21.7 

107 

41.7 

143 

61.7 

179 

81.7 

-37 

-38.3 

0 

-17.8 

36 

2.2 

72 

22.2 

108 

42.2 

144 

62.2 

180 

82.2 

-36 

-37.8 

+  1 

-17.2 

37 

2.8 

73 

22.8 

109 

42.8 

145 

62.8 

181 

82.8 

-35 

-37-2 

2 

-16.7 

38 

3-3 

74 

23-3 

1 10 

43-3 

146 

63-3 

182 

83.3 

-34 

-36.7 

3 

— 16.1 

39 

3-9 

75 

23-9 

III 

43.9 

'47 

63.9 

18383.9 

-33 

-36.1 

4 

-15-6 

40 

4.4 

76 

24.4 

112 

44.4 

148 

64.4 

184 

84.4 

-32 

-35-6 

5 

-15 

41 

5 

n 

25 

113 

45 

149 

65 

185 

85 

-31 

-35 

6 

-14.4 

42 

5-6 

1^ 

25.6 

114 

45.6 

150 

65.6 

186 

85.6 

-30 

-34-4 

7 

-13-9 

43 

6.1 

79 

26.1 

115 

46.1 

151 

66.1 

187 

86.1 

-29 

-33-9 

8 

-133 

44 

6.7 

80 

26.7 

116 

46.7 

152 

66.7 

188 

86.7 

-28 

-33-3 

9 

-12.8 

45 

7.2 

81 

27.2 

117 

47.2 

153 

67.2 

189 

87.2 

-27 

-32.8 

10 

—  12.2 

46 

7.8 

82 

27.8 

118 

47.8 

154 

67.8 

190 

87.8 

-26 

-32.2 

II 

-II. 7 

47 

8.3 

83 

28.3 

II9I48.3 

155 

68.3 

191 

88.3 

-25 

-31.7 

12 

—  II. I 

48 

8.9 

84 

28.9 

12048.9 

156 

68.9 

192 

88.9 

-24 

-3I-I 

13 

—  10.6 

49 

9.4 

85 

29.4 

I2149.4 

157 

69.4 

193 

89.4 

-23 

-30.6 

14 

-10 

50 

10 

86 

30 

I22j50 

158 

70 

194 

90 

—  22 

-30 

15 

-  9.4 

51 

10.6 

87 

30.6 

12350.6 

159 

70.6 

195 

90.6 

—  21 

-29.4 

16 

-  8.9 

52 

II. I 

88 

311 

I245I.I 

160 

71. 1 

196 

91. 1 

—  20 

-28.9 

17 

-  8.3 

53 

11.7 

89 

31.7 

i25;5i-7 

161 

ii.7 

197 

91.7 

-19 

-28.3 

18 

-  7.8 

54 

12.2 

90 

32.2 

12652.2 

162 

72.2 

198 

92.2 

-18 

-27.8 

19 

-  7.2 

55 

12.8 

91 

32.8 

12752.8 

163 

72.8 

199 

92.8 

-17 

-27.2 

20 

-  6.7 

56 

13-3 

92 

33.3 

12853-3 

164 

73-3 

200 

93-3 

-16 

-26.7 

21 

-  6.1 

57 

139 

93 

33-9 

i29;53-9 

165 

73-9 

201 

93.9 

-15 

-26.1 

22 

-  5-6 

58 

14.4 

94 

34-4 

130 

54-4 

166 

74.4 

202 

94.4 

-14 

-25.6 

23 

-  5 

59 

15 

95 

35 

131 

55 

167 

75 

203 

95 

-13 

-25 

24 

-  4.4 

60 

15.6 

96 

35-6 

132 

55.6 

168 

75.6 

204 

95-6 

—  12 

-24.4 

25 

~  3.9 

61 

16.1 

97 

36.1 

133 

56.1 

169 

76.1 

205 

96.1 

—  II 

-239 

26 

-  3-3 

62 

16.7 

98 

36.7 

134 

56.7 

170 

76.7 

206 

96.7 

—  10 

-23-3 

27 

-  2.8 

63 

17.2 

99 

37.2 

135 

57-2 

171 

77.2 

207 

97.2 

-  9 

-22.8 

28 

—  2.2 

64 

17.8 

100 

37-8 

136 

57-8 

172 

77.8 

20897.8 

-  8 

—  22.2 

29 

-  1.7 

65 

18.3 

lOI 

38.3 

137 

58.3 

173 

78.3 

209,98.3 

-  7 

-21.7 

30 

—  I.I 

66 

18.9 

102 

38.9 

138 

58.9 

174 

78.9 

21098.9 

-  6 

—  21. 1 

31 

-  0.6 

67 

19.4 

103 

39.4 

139 

59-4 

175 

794 

211 

99.4 

-  5 

—  20.6 

32 

—  0 

68 

20 

104 

40 

140 

60 

176 

80 

212 

100 

-  4 

-20 

(Kent.     Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket  Book.) 


go 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  TEMPERATURES, 
CENTIGRADE  TO  FAHRENHEIT. 


c 

F 

C 

F 

c 

F 

c 

F 

c 

F 

-40 

-40 

—  II 

12.2 

17 

62.6 

45 

113 

73 

163.4 

-39 

-38.2 

—  10 

14 

18 

64.4 

46 

114. 8 

74 

165.2 

-38 

-36.4 

-  9 

15.8 

19 

66.2 

47 

116. 6 

75 

167 

-37 

-34-6 

-  8 

17.6 

20 

68 

48 

118. 4 

76 

168.8 

-36 

-32.8 

-  7 

19.4 

21 

69.8 

49 

120.2 

77 

170.6 

-35 

-31 

-  6 

21.2 

22 

71.6 

50 

122 

78 

172.4 

-34 

-29.2 

-  5 

23 

23 

73-4 

51 

123.8 

79 

174.2 

-33 

-27.4 

-  4 

24.8 

24 

75-2 

52 

125.6 

80 

176 

-32 

-25.6 

-  3 

26.6 

25 

77 

53 

127.4 

81 

177.8 

-31 

-23-8 

—  2 

28.4 

26 

78.8 

54 

129.2 

82 

179.6 

-30 

—22 

—  I 

30.2 

2-] 

80.6 

55 

131 

83 

181. 4 

-29 

—20.2 

0 

32 

28 

82.4 

56 

132.8 

84 

183.2 

-28 

-18.4 

+  I 

33-8 

29 

84.2 

57 

134-6 

85 

185 

-27 

-16.6 

2 

35.6 

30 

86 

58 

136.4 

86 

186.8 

-26 

-14.8 

3 

37-4 

31 

87.8 

59 

138.2 

87 

188.6 

-25 

-13 

4 

39-2 

32 

89.6 

50 

140 

88 

190.4 

-24 

—  II. 2 

5 

41 

33 

^1.4 

61 

141. 8 

89 

192.2 

-23 

-  9-4 

6 

42.8 

34 

93-2 

62 

143-6 

90 

194  ^ 

—22 

-  7-6 

7 

44.6 

35 

95 

63 

145-4 

91 

195-8 

—21 

-  5.8 

8 

'46.4 

36 

96.8 

64 

147.2 

92 

197.6 

—20 

-  4 

9 

48.2 

37 

98.6 

65 

149 

93 

199.4 

-19 

—  2.2 

10 

50 

38 

100.4 

66 

150.8 

94 

201.2 

-18 

-  0.4 

II 

51.8 

39 

102.2 

67 

152.6 

95 

203 

-17 

+  1-4 

12 

53-6 

40 

104 

68 

154-4 

96 

204.8 

-16 

3-2 

13 

55-4 

41 

105.8 

69 

156.2 

97 

206.6 

-15 

5 

14 

57-2 

42 

107.6 

70 

158 

98 

208.4 

-14 

6.8 

15 

59 

43 

109.4 

71 

159-8 

99 

210.2 

-13 

8.6 

16 

60.8 

44 

III. 2 

72 

161. 6 

100 

212 

—  12 

10.4 

To  change  Centigrade  to  Fahrenheit,  divide  by  5,  multiply 
by  9,  and  add  32. 

To  change  Fahrenheit  to  Centigrade,  subtract  32,  divide 
by  9,  multiply  by  5. 

(Kent.     Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket  Book.) 


USEFUL  RULES  AND   TABLES 


91 


TABLE  SHOWING  PRESSURE    PER  SQUARE    INCH  IN 

POUNDS  WITH   VARYING   HEAD   OF   WATER 

IN  FEET. 


Head 

Pres- 

Head 

Pres- 

Head 

Pres- 

Head 

Pres- 

Ft. 

sure 

Ft. 

sure 

Ft. 

sure 

Ft. 

sure 

I 

.433 

34 

14.722 

67 

29.011 

100 

43  300 

2 

.866 

35 

15.155 

68 

29.444 

105 

45  465 

3 

1.299 

36 

15-588 

69 

29.877 

IIO 

47-630 

4 

■   1.732 

37 

16.021 

70 

30.310 

115 

49-795 

5 

2.165 

38 

16.454 

71 

30.743 

120 

51-960 

6 

2.598 

39 

16.887 

72 

31.176 

125 

54-125 

7 

3.031 

40 

17.320 

73 

31.609 

130 

56.290 

8 

3  464 

41 

17.753 

74 

32.042 

135 

58.455 

9 

3.897 

42 

18.186 

75 

32.475 

140 

60 . 620 

10 

4  330 

43 

18.619 

76 

32.908 

145 

62.785 

11 

4-763 

44 

19.052 

77 

33-341 

150 

64.950 

12 

5-196 

45 

19.485 

78 

33-774 

155 

67.115 

13 

5.629 

46 

19.918 

79 

34-207 

160 

69 . 280 

14 

6.062 

47 

20.351 

80 

34.640 

165 

71-445 

15 

6.495 

48 

20.784 

81 

35.073 

170 

73-610 

16 

6.928 

49 

21.217 

82 

35.506 

175 

75-775 

17 

7.361 

50 

21.650 

83 

35.939 

180 

77-940 

18 

7-794 

51 

22.083 

84 

36.372 

185 

80.105 

19 

8.227 

52 

22.516 

85 

36.805 

190 

82.270 

20 

8.660 

53 

22.949 

86 

37.238 

195 

84-435 

21 

9.093 

54 

23.382 

^7 

37.671 

200 

86.600 

22 

9.526 

55 

23.815 

88 

38.104 

225 

97-425 

23 

9-959 

56 

24.248 

89 

38.537 

250 

108.250 

24 

10.392 

57 

24.681 

90 

38.970 

275 

119.075 

25 

10.825 

58 

25.114 

91 

39.403 

300 

129.900 

26 

11.258 

59 

25.547 

92 

39.836 

325 

140.725 

27 

II. 691 

60 

25.890 

93 

40.269 

350 

151.550 

28 

12.124 

61 

26.413 

94 

40.702 

375 

162.375 

29 

12.557 

62 

26.846 

95 

41.135 

400 

173.200 

30 

12.990 

63 

27.279 

96 

41.568 

425 

184.025 

31 

13-423 

64 

27.712 

97 

42.001 

450 

194.850 

32 

13-856 

65 

28.145 

98 

42.434 

475 

205.675 

33 

14.289 

66 

28.578 

99 

42.867 

500 

216.500 

92 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS 


TABLE   SHOWING  THE   EXPANSION  OF   WATER  AT 
DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES  COMPARED  WITH 
VOLUME   AT    GREATEST    DENSITY    (4°  C.). 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Volume 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Volume 

4° 

39.1° 

I . 00000 

55 

131 

I. 01423 

5 

41 

I. 0000 I 

60 

140 

I. 01678 

10 

50 

1.00025 

65 

149 

I   01951 

15 

^2 

I . 00083 

70 

158 

I. 02241 

20 

68 

I.OOI7I 

75 

167 

1.02548 

25 

77 

1.00286 

80 

176 

1.02872 

30 

86 

I . 00425 

85 

185 

I   03213 

35 

95 

I . 00586 

90 

194 

1.03570 

40 

104 

1.00767 

95 

203 

I   03943 

45 

113 

I . 00967 

100 

212 

1.04332 

50 

122 

I.OII86 

TABLE   SHOWING  HEAD  OF  WATER  IN  FEET  WITH 
VARYING  PRESSURE  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 


Pres- 

Head 

Pres- 

Head 

Pres- 

Head 

Pres- 

Head 

sure 

Ft. 

sure 

Ft. 

sure 

Ft. 

sure 

Ft. 

I 

2.3 

26 

59.8 

51 

117-3 

76 

174.8 

2 

4.6 

27 

62.1 

52 

119. 6 

77 

177.1 

3 

6.9 

28 

64.4 

53 

121. 9 

78 

179.4 

4 

9.2 

29 

66.7 

54 

124.2 

79 

181. 7 

5 

II-5 

30 

69.0 

55 

126.5 

80 

184.0 

6 

13.8 

31 

713 

56 

128.8 

81 

186.3 

7 

16. 1 

32 

73-6 

57 

131 -I 

82 

188.6 

8 

18.4 

33 

75-9 

58 

133.4 

83 

190.9 

9 

20.7 

34 

78.2 

59 

135.7 

84 

193.2 

10 

23.0 

35 

80.5 

60 

138.0 

85 

195-5 

II 

253 

36 

82.8 

61 

140.3 

86 

197.8 

12 

27.6 

37 

8.5.1 

62 

142.6 

87 

200.1 

13 

29.9 

38 

87.4 

63 

144.9 

88 

202.4 

14 

32.2 

39 

89.7 

64 

147.2 

89 

204.7 

15 

34-5 

40 

92.0 

b5 

149-5 

90 

207.0 

16 

36.8 

41 

94-3 

66 

151.8 

91 

209.3 

17 

39-1 

42 

96.6 

67 

154. 1 

92 

211. 6 

18 

41.4 

43 

98.9 

68 

156-4 

93 

213.9 

19 

43-7 

44 

101.2 

69 

158.7 

94 

216.2 

20 

46.0 

45 

103-5 

70 

161. 0 

95 

218.5 

21 

48.3 

46 

105.8 

71 

163-3 

96 

220.8 

22 

50.6 

47 

108. 1 

72 

165.6 

97 

223.1 

23 

52.9 

48 

no. 4 

73 

167.9 

98 

225.4 

24 

55.2 

49 

112. 7 

74 

170.2 

99 

227.7 

25 

57-5 

50 

115. 0 

75 

172.5 

100 

230.0 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Bailey,  E.  H.  S. — Special  Report  on  Mineral  Waters.     The 

University  Geological  Survey  of  Kansas.     1902. 

2.  Blatchley.W.S. — The  Mineral  Waters  of  Indiana.  Twenty- 

sixth  and  Twenty-seventh  Annual  Report,  Department 
of  Geology  and  Natural  Resources  of  Indiana,  1901-1902. 

3.  Clarke,  F.  W. — Data  of  Geochemistry.     Bull.  491,  U.  S. 

Geological  Survey.     191 1. 

4.  Crook,  J.  K. — Mineral  Waters  of  the  United  States  and 

Their  Therapeutic  Uses.     1899. 

5.  De  LaCoux,  H. — Industrial  Uses  of  Water.     1903. 

6.  Dole,  R.  B. — Use  of  Fluorescein  in  the  Study  of  Under- 

ground Waters.  Water  Supply  Paper  160,  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey.     1906. 

7.  Dole,  R.  B, — The  Quality  of  Surface  Waters  in  the  United 

States.  Part  I — Analyses  of  Waters  East  of  the  looth 
Meridian.  Water  Supply  Paper  236,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey.     1909. 

8.  Fuller,  M.  L. — Amount  of  Free  Water  in  Earth's  Crust. 

Water  Supply  Paper  160,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     1906. 

9.  Fuller,    M.    L. — Controlling    Factors   of   Artesian   Flow. 

Bull.  319,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     1908. 
ID.  Fuller,    M.    L. — Underground    Waters    for    Farm    Use. 
Water  Supply  Paper  255,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     19 10. 

11.  Gregory,  H.  E. — Underground  Water  Resources  of  Con- 

necticut. Water  Supply  Paper  232,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey.     1909. 

12.  Harrington,   C. — Practical  Hygiene.     1905. 

13.  Haywood,  J.  K.,  and  Smith,  B.  H. — Mineral  Waters  of  the 

United  States.  Bull.  91,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.     1907. 

14.  Haywood,  J.  K.,  and  Weed,  W.  H. — The  Hot  Springs  of 

Arkansas.  Senate  Doc.  282,  57th  Congress,  1st  Session. 
1902. 

15.  Hazen,  a. — Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It.     1907. 

16.  Hessler,  R. — The  Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses  of  In- 

diana Mineral  Waters.  Twenty-sixth  and  Twenty- 
seventh  Annual  Report,  Department  of  Geology  and 
Natural  Resources  of  Indiana.     1901-1902. 

17.  Jackson,    D.    D. — Journal  of    Infectious    Diseases.    Vol. 

8,  No.  2.     1911. 

93 


94  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

i8.  Jordan,  E.  O.— General  Bacteriology.     1912. 

19.  Leighton,    M,    O. — Pollution    of    Illinois    and    Mississippi 

Rivers  by  Chicago  Sewage.     Water    Supply  Paper  194, 
U.   S.  Geological  Survey.     1906. 

20.  Mason,  W.  P. — ^Water  Supply.     1908. 

21.  Mason,  W.  P. — Examination  of  Water.     19 12. 

22.  Matson,    G.    C, — Pollution    of    Underground    Waters    in 

Limestone.     Water  Supply  Paper  258,   U.  S.  Geological 
Survey.     1910. 

23.  Peale,  a.  C. — Lists  and  Analyses  of  the  Mineral  Springs 

of  the  United  States.     Bull.  32,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
1886. 

24.  Prescott  and  Winslow — Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology. 

1911. 

25.  Savage,  W.  G. — The  Bacteriological  Examination  of  Water 

Supplies.     1906. 

26.  Sellards,  E.  H. — Underground  Water  Supply  of  Central 

Florida.     Bull.    I,    Florida    Geological    Survey.     1908. 

27.  Skinner,  W.  W. — American  Mineral  Waters.     Bull.   139, 

Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Department  of  Agriculture.     191 1. 

28.  Slighter,   C.   S. — The   Motions  of   Underground  Waters. 

Water  Supply  Paper  67,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     1902. 

29.  Standard  Methods  of  Water  Analysis. — Laboratory  Section 

American  Public  Health  Association.     1912. 

30.  Turneare  and  Russell. — Public  Water  Supplies.     1909. 

31.  U.   S.    Depjartment   of  Agriculture. — Food   Inspection    De- 

cision 94. 

32.  Van  Hise,  C.  R. — A  Treatise  on  Metamorphism.     Mono- 

graph U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Vol.  47.     1904. 

33.  Veatch,  a.   C. — Underground  Water   Resources  of  Long 

Island.     Prof.  Paper  44,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     1906. 

34.  Whipple,    G.    C. — ^The    Microscopy    of    Drinking    Water. 

1908. 

35.  Young,  C.  C— Bull.  Kansas  State  Board  of  Health,  Vol. 

7,  No.  I.     1911. 


INDEX 


Air,  pollution  of,  3.  ^ 
Ammonia,  albuminoid,  52. 
Ammonia,  free,  52. 
Artesian  springs,  19. 
Artesian  wells,  25. 

Bacteria,  63,  68-71,  75. 

In  stored  water,  70. 

Multiplication  of,  69. 
Bacteriological  examination,  63. 

Method  of,  64. 

Reasons  for,  63. 
Bibliography,  93. 

Capacity  of  pipes,  88. 
Capacity  of  tanks  and  cisterns,  86. 
Chemical  and  physical  standards,  14. 
Chemical  classification  of  mineral  waters,  45. 
Chemical  composition  of.  water,  15. 
Chemical  examination,  49. 

Variations  in,  49. 
Chlorine,  56. 

Classification  of  mineral  waters,  43. 
Classification  of  springs,  19. 
Collection  of  samples,  50. 
Colon  group  of  bacteria,  71. 

Length  of  life  in  water,  74. 

Identification  of,  77. 
Color  of  water,  51. 
Contamination  of  springs,  20. 
Contamination  of  wells,  29. 
Course  of  underground  waters,  37. 

Distribution  of  water,  11. 

Earth,  temperature  of,  9. 

Examples  of  pollution  of  watershed,  34,  35. 

Expansion  of  water,  table  of,  92. 

95 


96  INDEX 

Fissure  springs,  20. 
Flow  of  springs,  16. 
Fluorescein,  39. 
Formation  of  springs,  17. 
Free  water  in  earth's  crust,  11. 

Geological  classification  of  mineral  waters,  43. 
Gravity  springs,  19. 
Ground  water,  2,  5. 

Temperature  of,   9, 

Hardness,  59. 

Haywood's  classification,  46. 

Head  of  water  due  to  pressure,  table  of,  92. 

Hot  springs,  9. 

Indicators,  37. 

Limestone,  21. 
Lithium,  42. 
Lost  streams,  21. 

Magmatic  waters,  43. 
Microscopical  examination,  78. 
Mineral  water,  40. 

Classification  of,  43. 

Definition  of,  40. 

Lithium  in,  33. 
Movement  of  water  through  the  earth,  8. 
Multiplication  of  bacteria,  69. 

Nitrates,  54. 
Nitrites,  54. 
Nitrogen  cycle,  54. 

Odor,  51. 
Organic  matter,  58. 

Perched  water  table,  18. 

Permeability,  6. 

Phosphates,  57. 

Plankton,  79. 

Pollution  of  watershed,  34. 

Porosity,  6. 

PotabiHty,  14. 

Pressure  due  to  head,  table  of,  91. 

Pressure  gradient,  8. 

Properties  of  water,  12. 


INDEX  97 

Rain  water,  3,  13. 
Rules,  83. 
Run-off,  I. 

Sanitary  survey,  33. 
Sediment,  51. 
Seepage  springs,  19. 
Source  of  water,  i. 
Specific  gravity,  15. 
Specific  heat,  15. 
Springs,  16. 

Classification  of,  19. 

Contamination  of,  20. 

Definition  of,  16. 

Flow  of,  16. 

Formation  of,  16. 

In  limestone  regions,  21. 

Source  of  supply,  23. 

Hot,  10. 
Storage  of  water,  70. 
Streams,  lost,  21. 
Stream  measurement,  84. 

Table  of  capacity  of  cylindrical  vessels,  86. 

Capacity  of  pipes,  88. 

Expansion  of  water,  92. 

Head  of  water,  due  to  pressure  per  square  inch,  92. 

Pressure  per  square  inch  due  to  water  head,  91. 

Temperatures,  Centigrade  to  Fahrenheit,  90. 

Temperatures,  Fahrenheit  to  Centigrade,  89. 

Weights  and  measures,  84. 
Taste  of  water,  14,  60. 
Temperature  of  earth,  9. 
Temperature  of  ground  water,  9. 
Temperature,  tables  of,  89-90. 
Total  solids,  61. 
Tubular  springs,  20. 
Types  of  wells,  24. 
Typhoid  fever,  71. 

Underground  waters,  37. 

Detecting  course  of,  37. 

Vadose  waters,  43. 

Variations  in  chemical  analysis,  49. 

Water,  bacteriological  analysis  of,  63. 
Chemical  analysis  of,  49. 


gs 


INDEX 


Water, 

Chemical  and  physical  standards  of,  14. 

Chemical  composition  of,  15. 

Colon  bacillus  in,  72. 

Distribution  of,  11. 

Free  in  earth's  crust,  11. 

In  limestone,  21. 

Microscopical  examination  of,  78. 

Mineral,  40. 

Classification  of,  43. 
Definition  of,  40. 

Movement  of,  8. 

Properties  of,  12. 

Purification  of,  81. 

Source  of,  i. 

Specific  gravity  of,  15. 

Specific  heat  of,  15. 

Taste  of,  14,  60. 

Temperature  of,  9. 

Typhoid  fever  bacillus  in,  71. 

Underground,  detecting  course  of,  37. 
Indicators  for,  ^7. 

Weight  of,  84. 
Watershed,  32. 

Pollution  of,  34. 

Sanitary  survey  of,  33. 
Weights  and  measures,  table  of,  84. 
Wells,  24. 

Artesian,  25. 

Contamination  of,  29, 

Definition  of,  24. 

Types  of,  24. 


/^-o 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON.  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


-^-^r:o  -'^ 


urn    4  t940 


'-'  ^''■^ 


ft  ni^ 


+^« — 4 


lOJui'eiRC 


^ii^^ 


KL;C'D  LD 


M 


M.    5 


^oftBT'53Vl 


'^Pf?^  0195310 


,6jUl'57Di 


:c'P  LP 


■iMLS   W 


2;.VMigbiSi 


LD  21-100m-7,'39(402s) 


308539 


;t  ' 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


